ENGLISH

Descartes Method to Overcome Skepticism and Its Problems

2007-12-23T01:05:00.000-08:00

(By: Istasadhya)

I. Introduction

The first phase of skepticism was revealed under the Pythagoras philosophy, which stated that there is no objective truth. The belief of religion was collapse; man searched for the truth by rely on their own logic, thus there was no truth outside human logic. Unfortunately, every man has his own understanding about the truth, further there were no absolute truth, the truth was depend on each man based on his own logic. Thus, truth was relative. There was no certainty. At that time came the survivor, the great philosopher, Socrates (470-399 BC). By his dialectics method, introducing that there is an objective truth. He tried to convince people to believe in religion as they used to be.

The second phase of skepticism, arose during the 10th-15th century, when philosophy was hegemonies by the Church authority. Philosophy as a science could not find its freedom to find the truth; the church authority limited its freedom only for a tool to legitimate of their Holy Book. All science should be based on the interpretation of the Holy Book, therefore if any science contrary or against the interpretation of the Holy Book, then the scientist or philosopher should be punished. It was ever happened to Copernicus and Galileo, whereas they asserted their ideas that it is earth which around the sun, and sun as the center of universe (heliocentric). In other words, the using of ratio is limited and undeveloped. It is absolutely clear such as in the Anselmus (1033-1109) philosophy. The typical of Middle age philosophy is known as in the famous word saying by Saint Anselmus, credo ut intelligam, means believing first then understanding. This type is absolutely different from rational philosophy, understanding first then believing or not believing.

This change in thoughts and beliefs and the toppling of the intellectual and philosophical foundation (of the Middle Ages) broad about psychological crises in many of the scholars, and raised doubts in their minds such as : How can we be sure that other beliefs we hold are not invalid, and that one day their invalidity will not become evident? How can we know that newly discovered scientific theories will not also be invalidated someday? Finally, a great scholars named Montaigne denied the value of science and knowledge and he explicitly wrote; how can we be sure that the theory of Copernicus will not be invalidated in the future? He once more expressed the doubts of the skeptics and the sophists in a new way, and defended skepticism, and thus another phase of skepticism appeared.

In the middle age, in Europe there was school of philosophy, the place where the only discussion taught in the church affiliated schools, and which came to be called scholastic philosophy, were these which could justify the dogmas of Christianity, dogmas which were not without deviation themselves. The dogmatic resistance of the Church and the ruthless behavior of the authorities of the Church with respect to the scientists brought about adverse reaction. The most important effort from skepticism and the revitalization of philosophy was Rene Descartes, the French philosopher who is called “The Father of The Modern Philosophy.”

The word Renaissance derived from The Renaissance, also known as " Rinascimento" (in Italian), was an influential cultural movement which brought about a period of scientific revolution and artistic transformation, at the dawn of modern European history. It marks the transitional period between the end of the Middle Ages and the start of the Modern Age. The Renaissance is usually considered to have originated in the 14th century in northern Italy and begun in the late 15th century in northern Europe.

The term Rebirth (Rinascenza), to indicate the flourishing of artistic and scientific activities starting in Italy in the 13th century, was first used by Italian historian Giorgio Vasari in the Vite, published in 1550. The term Renaissance is the French translation, used by French historian Jules Michelet, and expanded upon by Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt (both in the 1860s). Rebirth is used in two ways. First, it means rediscovery of ancient classical texts and learning and their applications in the arts and sciences. Second, it means that the results of these intellectual activities created a revitalization of European culture in general. Thus it is possible to speak of the Renaissance in two different but meaningful ways: A rebirth of classical learning and knowledge through the rediscovery of ancient texts, and also a rebirth of European culture in general. The following article is discussion about Descartes’ life and thought.

2. Discussion

2.1. Descartes’ life

Descartes was born in a village near Tours in France in 1596. He was educated at a Jesuit college which was firmly grounded in the scholastic tradition, and by no means adverse to the study of either the humanities, or science. At the school he was given privileges similar to those enjoyed by boys of noble birth, but on the grounds of his fragile health. Descartes studied a broad range of subjects, and excelled particularly in mathematics. It is clear he benefited greatly from this Jesuit education, yet Descartes (in common with many intellectuals of his time) was keen to stress the separation of reason and faith. This meant that he could be skeptical concerning the philosophical and theological positions taken by the Church, while maintaining his Catholic faith. After taking a degree in law from Poitier, Descartes enlisted in the Dutch and, later, the Bavarian militaries. By 1619, under the influence of the Dutch mathematician and scientist Beeckman, Descartes began his exceptionally fertile mathematical studies of natural phenomena. Also around 1619, Descartes may have begun the unfinished Rules for the Direction of the Mind which was his first major philosophical treatise on the proper method for pursuing either science or rational theology. Over the next decade, Descartes alternated spending time in Paris with the circle of mathematicians and physicists gathered around the figure of Father Mersenne, and travelling widely. In 1629 Descartes moved to Holland where he lived in seclusion for 20 years, only occasionally returning to France, and changing his residence frequently to preserve his privacy.

It was after he moved to Amsterdam that Descartes began working in earnest on the philosophical ideas upon which his fame now rests. The Discourse on the Method was published in 1637. And in 1640, he enlarged upon the metaphysical issues therein, writing his Meditations on First Philosophy. The full title of this work is Meditations on the First Philosophy: In Which the Existence of God and the Distinction Between Mind and Body are Demonstrated. The work was first published in 1641 in Latin and was translated into French in the following year by the Duc de Luynes. The Principles of Philosophy followed in 1644. He went to Sweden on the invitation of the Queen in 1649, and died a few months later of inflammation of the lungs.

2.2 Descartes’ Philosophy

Descartes’ philosophy’s background came from the uncertainty situation that time. Scholastic thought, did not know how to handle the positive science which revealed by some scientists and philosophers. Seeing those situation he was encouraged to get free from the trap of the traditional thought and found out another new way of thinking. The following article will elaborate Descartes’ philosophy, mainly related to his epistemology. Descartes’ epistemology will be divided into three main parts: the quest for certainty, the certainty of existence, and the argument for existence of the external world.

2.2.1 The Quest for Certainty

Descartes point is proposing such a catastrophic test was not just to introduce doubts about everything: “I did not imitate the Skeptics, who doubt only for the sake of doubting, and pretend that they are always uncertain. On the contrary, my purpose was only to obtain good ground for assurance for my self, and to reject the quicksand and mud so that I might find the rock or clay.” Descartes was seeking an absolutely certain basis for all knowledge. To find strong basis for his philosophy, he started to doubt anything. He doubts all senses perceptions, he doubt the existence of his own body. To doubt all those things are possible, because there are dreams, illusion, imagination that as if there are exist. When we are dreaming, we see by our eyes that we wear a cloth, sitting by the fire and seems that it is real, but when we wake up then we know that we are not wearing any cloth and are not sitting by the fire. Thus, who can guarantee that what we perceive by our senses really real or exist? There is a real exact thing that can not be deceived by our senses or even by ghost, it is really real or exact that now “ I doubt .“ This is became his basis of philosophy. his principle may be summarized in his famous proposition: “ I doubt, therefore I am “ or “ I think, therefore I am “ or in Latin “ Cogito Ergo Sum “ that is, if one follows the way of doubt regarding the existence of everything, one will nonetheless never be able to doubt one’s own existence. Since doubt is meaningless without one who doubts, the human existence of doubters and thinkers is also indubitable.

2.2.2 The Certainty of Existence

In this manner Descartes carried on his test in search of some information which would be indubitable and certain. If could find such knowledge, he could use it as starting point for justifying the entire structure of human knowledge. Descartes found exactly the kind of certainty: “ I think, therefore I am “ why am I so certain that “ I think, therefore I am “ is true? According to Descartes, the only feature of this statement which convinces me that it is true, is that I clearly and distinctly see or understand, what is being said. Clarity and distinctness, must be the marks of truth, the distinguishing characteristics by which you can tell the true from the false. Then, general rule can be formulated, “ Whatever is clearly and distinctly conceived is true. “

From doubting anything, he then came to one exact thing which is doubt itself. Doubt is the exact n exist thing, because nothing can deceive me who doubt. And the person who doubts must be also real and exist. So whoever doubt or think he must be real and exist. Finally he found that there is one truth, it is “ I doubt or think, therefore I am. “ “ I think, therefore I am “ is a clear and distinct proposition. We must warn against the fact that when Descartes began the demonstrative stage of his thought, he had not felt the need for accepting the syllogistic figures in logic. Rather, he believed that knowledge of his existence by way of his thought is an intuitive matter that does not require the construction of syllogistic figures and the acceptance of their minor and major premises. Since the proposition, “ I think, therefore I am “ is true because it is intuitive, such that it is not subject to doubt, anything of the same degree of intuitiveness is also true. With this, Descartes added another proposition, and admitted as true that a thing does not out of nothing. On Descartes official doctrines, ideas are innate insofar as their content derives from the nature of the mind alone, as opposed to deriving from sense experience. The innate ideas are:

One truth which stands firm in the face of the storm and is unshaken by the tendencies of doubt- this truth being his thought, which is an indubitable, actual reality.

The idea of God is an idea having an objective reality, since in its objective reality, it is superior to the human thinker and all his ideas. This is because the human thinker is deficient and limited; while the idea of God is the idea of a being absolutely perfect and infinite. Within this thinking self, Descartes an idea of God, and an idea of something so perfect that it could not have been caused in us by anything with less perfection than God Himself. From this he concluded that God must exist which, in turn, guarantees that reason can be trusted. Since we are made in such a way that we cannot help holding certain beliefs ( the so-called ‘clear and distinct perceptions), God would be a deceiver, and thus imperfect, is such beliefs were wrong; any mistakes must be due to our misuse of reason. This is Descartes’ famous epistemological principle of clear and distinct perception.” Thus the idea of God is a must.

Extension. A matter as an extension as it is described by mathematician.
Innate ideas are real primary qualities that express objective reality.

2.2.3 The Argument For Existence of The External World

We can be certain of our own existence, of God and of God’s guarantee that whatever is clearly and distinctly conceived is true. Mathematics knowledge is true but only gives us truth about concepts in our mind. There is truth outside our mind: since the belief in an external world is a natural one, God would be deceiving us unless it were true. Since God cannot be a deceiver, there must be an external physical world. The properties that we can safely attribute to it are those which we find in our clear and distinct ideas of body- namely, geometrical and arithmetical truth. Another argument for external physical world is:

a. Sensation come to me in voluntarily (I’m unaware of causing them with my will)

b. Therefore, sensations are caused by something external to me

c. Therefore, there exists something external to my mind-external world.
Thus, it is clear that there is another existence outside mind, it is external material world. Nevertheless, Descartes regarding existence of the external world expresses specific reactions of the soul, cause by external influence, such as the idea of sound, odor, light, flavor, heat, and color. They are called secondary qualities that represent subjective reactions. They are successive mental concepts that arise in the mental realm due to the influence of external bodies to which they have no resemblance.

3. Conclusion

Descartes’ epistemology is based on rational foundation. By using his ratio he searched for the truth, the knowledge. According to him, thought as an activity of thinking is the objective reality, there is no deception by which thought is a truth. “I think, therefore I am” is a starting point for Descartes to find the truth. Clear and distinct those are the requirements of finding the truth or the existence of a thing. Through these requirements, Descartes found any other truth that he called it as: Innate ideas. Innate ideas are objective realities since we conceive those ideas by our ratio, meanwhile the existence of the external world as subjective reactions since it is acquiring our senses. Descartes emphasizes his thought merely on logic, due to the using of ratio at that time was tightly limited. Nevertheless, Descartes himself cannot separate from the atmosphere of religion thought. Rationality foundation that he built to find the truth did not make him as a slave of ratio and neglecting the existence of God. In contrary, he tried to harmonize religion and ratio. He thought clearly and distinctly that there is impossible all existences came from nothing, as his famous proposition: “ A thing does not come out from nothing.”

BIBLIOGRAPHY

As Sadr, M. Baqir. Our Philosophy. Qum: Ansariyan Publications, 2000
Graid, Edward (ed). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (vol 3 and 8). New York: Routledge, 1998
Hopkin, Richard H., et al. Philosophy Made Simple. Great Britain, 1979
Huemer, Michel (ed). Epistemology. London: Routledge, 2002
Praja, Juhaya S. Aliran-aliran Filsafat dan Etika. Bogor: Kencana, 2003
Yazdi, M. Taqi Misbah. Philosophical Instructions. New York: Binghamton University, 1999
http//www.google.com

Istasadhya,

"Master Student of Islamic Philosophy- ICAS Jakarta"

Indonesia History

2007-12-21T19:53:00.000-08:00

Although hundreds of ethnic groups have been know as the indigenous of Indonesia for hundreds and thousands of years, Indonesia did not exist in its present form until the turn of the 20th century.

Of the so-called natives of Indonesia, archaeologists have speculated that the first people to populate Indonesia migrated from mainland China some 1,000 years ago and inhabited a stretch of islands along the equator, later known as Nusantara.

Over the centuries they built and refined their statecraft in the form of kingdoms and principalities. Sharing similar characteristics with other Southeast Asian kingdoms, these Nusantara kingdoms based their conception of state more on people than on space or territory. But intercourse with the western world changed the course of history in Nusantara.

In 1511, the Portuguese conquered Malacca, located on the Malay peninsula, which was then still an inseparable part of Nusantara. The Dutch followed in 1512 and landed on Banten shore in Java. At first, the Dutch came more as traders under the trading umbrella of the Royal East Indies Company (Vereniging Oost Indische Compagnie, VOC). For the next two centuries, the Dutch conducted business with the natives, although in many cases the trade was not on equal terms. Often, trade was accompanied by violent pacification processes.

Then the VOC went bankrupt and the Dutch government took over the business in Nusantara (called the East Indies by the Dutch). Starting from about the mid-seventh century and lasting until the arrival of the Japanese in 1942, was the "real colonization" called "high colonialism" in literature. The period was disrupted briefly when the British took over colonial rule in 1811 to 1814. Among other things that the natives learned from colonization was statecraft based on territorial conception rather than on people.

In the early 20th century, the natives of Nusantara learned that as diverse as their ethnicities were, they could imagine themselves as a unified community. A nationalism had grown in a process that Benedict Anderson, a doyen of Indonesian studies, calls an "imagined community". During the first half of 20th century Nusantara, its people built an imaginary nation called Indonesia -- the name itself was borrowed from the West. By the end of the 1930s, it was clear that the end of Dutch colonialism in Indonesia was only a matter of time.

During World War II, 1942-1945, the Japanese occupied Indonesia. Although short-lived, the occupation enabled Indonesians to arm themselves for the very first time. Shortly after Japan's defeat in WWII, Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed Indonesia an independent state, and they became the founding fathers of the new country. The largest archipelago in the world, with over 17,000 islands -- only 3,000 of which are inhabited -- has emerged into a new Indonesia.

When the Dutch returned and tried to reestablish colonial rule, armed Indonesians resisted. The Dutch were forced to recognize an independent Indonesia in 1949.

The new Indonesia adopted a federal system of governance for a short time. But for a longer period, within a five-year span (1950-1955), leaders of the new country were eager to adopt a liberal system of government. Although there is no proof that the system ruined the economy, it was clear that the elite's political stability was shaky. The longest serving prime minister was only two years in office.

The government then held a general election in 1955, the first and only democratic general election Indonesia ever had. But feeling that the country was still unstable two years after the election, president Sukarno, backed by the Army, declared the 1950 Provisional Constitution void and reintroduced the 1945 Constitution. The latter provided an ample opportunity for Sukarno, popularly known as Bung Karno (Comrade Sukarno), to balance three political powers -- the Indonesian Communist Party, the Army and himself.

In the first half of the 1960s, Bung Karno leaned toward the left. On domestic politics, he was trying hard to balance the communists and the Army; on the international stage he was establishing himself as leader of a new world, free from Cold War antagonism. But economic decline and mounting conflicts, especially between communists and noncommunists, the latter of which was backed by the Army, caused him to lose control over the situation.

On Sept. 30, 1965, an abortive coup occurred. There are two conflicting versions of events surrounding the attempted coup. The official Army version insists that the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) was behind the coup attempt, while the communist version asserts that the coup was an internal matter of the Army. In fact, several members of PKI's central bureau were involved, as well as many Army officers and personnel.

The abortive coup cost Indonesia dearly. It took the lives of seven high-ranking Army generals, followed by a pogrom of communists -- a moderate estimate ranges between 300 thousand and 500 thousand alleged members of PKI. Soeharto, who then was a major general and commander of the Army Strategic Reserves Command, took over leadership and deposed Bung Karno from his presidential seat.

In 1966, Soeharto received a letter known as the March 11 Letter of Instruction which reportedly transferred state power from Sukarno to him.

In 1967, Soeharto unseated Sukarno as president in the special session of the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS).

Consolidating his power under a new regime called the New Order, Soeharto launched a "regime cleansing" against the Old Order.

Together with Hamengkubuwono IX, the sultan of Yogyakarta, and Adam Malik -- the three were known as the triumvirate -- Soeharto divided the tasks for economic and political reconstruction. Sultan Hamengkubuwono was assigned to lead efforts for economic recovery, Adam Malik was assigned to redirect Indonesia's foreign policy toward the West, and Soeharto himself was "assigned" to rebuild the lamentable domestic politics.

Soeharto was determined to change Indonesia's course, from its emphasis on politics to prioritizing economic development. He set up the trilogy of development: political stability, economic growth and equality.

To gain political legitimacy, perceived as a prerequisite to economic growth, the government conducted a general election in 1971. The election, however, was far from democratic. Soeharto introduced the "floating mass" concept that banned political parties from operating at village level.

From the 1971 election and throughout the New Order period, the Functional Group (Golongan Karya, or Golkar) served as Soeharto's main political machinery. Golkar legally operated not as a political party, although in fact it was a party. Golkar ran in the 1971 elections against 10 other political parties -- including PKI and Masyumi which were two of the four biggest parties in 1955 but which had been out of political scene -- and won 62 percent of the vote.

In 1974, Soeharto forced all political parties to merge into three: Golkar, the United Development Party (PPP) and the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI). Again, legally speaking Golkar was not a political party. Five more elections were conducted every five years. During those years, Soeharto tightly controlled politics; not even the slightest room was available for opposition.

There were several cases of serious opposition during the New Order regime. The first came rather as a blow in 1974, when students protested against Japanese investments. Added by political rivalry between Gen. Soemitro and Maj. Gen. Ali Moertopo, student protests in Jakarta turned into riots. The movement ended with the removal of Soemitro from his powerful position as deputy commander of the Armed Forces and chief of staff of the Operation Command for the Restoration of Security and Order (Kopkamtib).

The second serious opposition movement came in 1978. Again it came from students, who protested Soeharto's bid for a second term in office, which would be decided upon by the People's Consultative Assembly in its General Session in March 1978.

Several retired Army officers backed the students, while factionalism was apparent within the Armed Forces. Soeharto moved fast to crush the movement. Hundreds of opposition and student leaders were arrested, dozens of newspapers and magazines were closed down. The movement lost its momentum, and after that Soeharto enjoyed an incontestable position.

If Golkar served as Soeharto's main political machinery, the Army functioned as guardian of the state. And since the state was personalized around Soeharto alone, the Army also served to protect him. Under its dual function role doctrine -- the doctrine argues that the duties of a professional Indonesian Armed Forces includes attending to nonmilitary business, especially if it has to do with politics -- the military intervened in almost all sectors of public life. At its peak, the number of military personnel serving in nonmilitary affairs reached over 40,000. Later, history witnessed excesses of the doctrine.

Some businesspeople, many of whom were of Chinese descent, enjoyed state protection and sometimes two-digit economic growth; some grew to become tycoons and magnates. The privileges that these businesspeople enjoyed sparked resentment from other communities. As a result, racial tension grew.

But Chinese businesspeople were not the only ones to enjoy state protection and preference. Some indigenous businesspeople also enjoyed similar privileges. In general, what Kunio Yoshihara calls "ersatz capitalism", or pseudocapitalism, grew. Those "capitalists" were not real capitalists.

Then the financial crisis came. It first hit in mid-1997, and many believe it was a direct result of Thailand's economic crisis. The crisis worsen with the scheduling of the People's Consultative Assembly's General Session in March 1998, with the main agenda being to "elect" a "new" national leadership. It eventually turned into a political crisis too. But Soeharto was determined to run for his seventh consecutive five-year term in office. Supported by his political machine, Soeharto, as expected, became president again.

The economic and political crises made the political climate like a house of cards. Lacking sensitivity, Soeharto filled his new Cabinet with cronies, and appointed one of his daughters minister of social affairs. Less than two months after the formation of the new Cabinet, political tension mounted to an unbearable level. On May 12, four Trisakti University students were shot dead following a peaceful demonstration.

The shootings immediately sparked the emotions of the masses. To the majority of people, the New Order regime had become soulless. Within a week, Indonesia experienced one of its most tumultuous periods in history. For three days, from May 13 through to May 15, six of the country's largest cities were hit by massive riots, probably the largest riots in Indonesia's history. Days later, hundreds of thousand students and members of the public poured into the streets. Chanting and demanding total reform, thousands marched to the legislative building in Jakarta and occupied it for several days.

This forced Soeharto to step down. Instead of returning the presidential mandate to the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) he gave the mandate to vice president B.J. Habibie. The new president is weak, but his weakness is one of his strengths. Everyone close to him feels that they can use him, and thus balancing the power is everyone's interest. The government scheduled another general election on June 7, 1999, only two years after the last election.

Forty-eight political parties, instead of three, competed for 462 seats in the House of Representatives, with the remaining 38 seats going to the military. The election was the first democratic poll since 1965, and the results should have a long-term effect on domestic political stability. The Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI Perjuangan) won a majority in the House (DPR) with 35 percent of seats, followed by Golkar, the United Development Party (PPP), the National Awakening Party (PKB), the Crescent and Stars Party (PBB) and the National Mandate Party (PAN).

Despite its position as a simple majority party, PDI Perjuangan lost the political battle to install chairwoman Megawati Soekarnoputri as president. In a tight race against a strategic coalition of Golkar and the Axis Force, a coalition of various Islamic parties, PDI Perjuangan also lost the strategic posts of speakers of the House and People's Consultative Assembly. After losing out on the presidency, Megawati was elected as vice president.

Take From The Jakarta Post

Fasting: Stronger of Sleepier?

2007-09-14T19:08:00.000-07:00

“You neither eat nor drink the whole day?” Tan asked me.

“Yes. The whole day. But not at night. Only from dawn to sunset”, I replied.

“How can you survive? Can you survive?”, Tan asked again.

I smiled.

“Well, it’s not just you. Even Habib Bourguiba, the late President of Tunisia who was also a ‘Muslim’, convinced that fasting is against productivity. You know the history?”, I took my turn asking Tan my question.

Habib Bourguiba

“How should I know? Tell me!”, he said.

In 1961, Habib Bourguiba made a controversial statement claiming that fasting should not be observed for it reduces productivity. He then appeared on television with his cabinet, eating and drinking during Ramadhan.

“Why so harsh?”, Tan was shocked.

“I don’t know. Was it out of ignorance or arrogance? Perhaps a combination of both”, I replied.

Even though fasting is there in the name of Lent among Christians, it is always the Muslim’s version that cultivates questions and debates.

In order to understand about the real meaning of fasting, one should agree that it has something to do with our own paradigm and world view. The way we view things; like I always quote, “what you see is what you get”.

VIEWING FASTING IN MANY WAYS

If you see fasting as a way for better diet, you will benefit that from fasting. But fasting will only be a mechanism of improving your diet.

If you see fasting as a way to save your daily expense by breaking your fast daily in the mosque, then you will be able to achieve that. But that’s it. No more than that.

If you see fasting as a way for you to gain reward or ‘pahala’ from Him, then it is a good motive and sound intention. But reward and pahala is something that you can hardly measure in this physical and worldly life. You don’t see someone obese out of pahala. It is something else!

And strangely, the last 10 days of Ramadhan are the most rewarded and full of pahala, but then you’ll see the mosques are empty.

So, what Ramadhan and fasting are all about?

If you see fasting as abstaining one from eating, drinking, having sexual intercourse during the daytime, and reducing the wrongdoings of backbiting what so ever… that is the definition of fasting. But it only explains the mechanism of fasting as ritual.

Let us take a look at the origin of Muslims’s version of fasting. Al-Quran says:

“O you who believe! Observing As-Saum (the fasting) is prescribed for you as it was prescribed for those before you, that you may become the people with the quality of Taqwa” (Al-Baqarah 2: 183)

Fasting is a mechanism to achieve Taqwa. You abstain yourself from eating and drinking, in order to achieve Taqwa. How is that?

TAQWA

Taqwa can be defined in many ways. But the conversation between Ubay bin Kaab and Umar al-Khattab was a good summary about the essence of Taqwa. Once, Umar asked Ubay what he knows about Taqwa. Ubay replied by asking him, “Have you walked through thorny path?”

Umar answered, “Yes, indeed”

Ubay then asked him, “What did you do?”

Umar replied, “I tucked up (my garment) and did my best (to avoid thorns)”

Thereupon Ubay said, “That is Taqwa!”

Our life is a journey. Like someone who is driving from a place to another. Throughout the journey, he will meet many road signs that might instruct him to do against his will. He wants to drive at full speed, but a sign says, “No, the limit is only 80km/h”.

He wants to arrive as early as possible but suddenly a red light instructs him to stop and let others move first.

Someone who is wise and on top of his rational thinking, would never ever see all the road signs as challenge to his right exercising his freedom. The truth is, the road signs are there to help him achieve safety throughout the journey until he reaches the destination.

The same thing applied to our big picture of this life. Do’s and don’ts of Islam are not the obstruction and challenge to the access of his freedom of choice. They come from the Creator who knows better what is good and what is bad in this life. They are there for our safety, peace and harmony.

Someone who has the quality of Taqwa will take his journey like someone who walks through thorny path. He is a person with a full of consciousness about what is good and what is bad around him. He must also have a good self control, like a person who is good in controlling his car steering.

This is the essence of fasting. You learn to exercise your self control.

SELF CONTROL

If someone does not take his lunch because there is nothing to eat, then it causes him tiredness and anger.

But a believer who chooses not to eat while he has everything to do so, for the sake of obeying his Lord, then he is exercising his ability to control himself against some of his desire.

You can eat, but you don’t eat. You can drink, but you learn not to drink, so that you can tell yourself that you are a proactive person. Not a reactive one.

A reactive person will get mad when something stimulates him to anger. He will be sad and out of control when something causes him sadness.

He has no ‘pause’ button. He has no ability to control himself to choose a better reaction. His actions are determined by things around him. He is not the one who controls himself. He is occupied by others. He is under the real occupation of others.

A Muslim is not an effective Muslim if he does not have a control over his own actions. He must be a proactive Muslim.

Return back you self control… you are the strongest!

Fasting makes us stronger, if we correct the way we view it.

Fasting is 30 days intensive training course for the 7 Habits of Highly Effective Muslim.

Health GUIDELINES

2007-09-11T05:09:00.000-07:00

This article provides useful advice on how to avoid some common problems encountered in Ramadhan. The advice should enable one to fast comfortably and enjoy fully the spiritual benefits of Ramadhan.

During Ramadhan, our diet should not differ greatly from normal and should be as simple as possible. We should be able to maintain our normal weight, neither losing nor gaining. However, if one is over-weight, Ramadhan is an ideal time to lose weight.

We should aim to consume slow digesting foods including fiber-containing foods. Slow-digesting foods last up to 8 hours, while fast-digesting foods last only 3 to 4 hours.

Slow-digesting foods are foods that contain grains and seeds like barley, wheat, oats, semolina, beans, lentils, whole meal flour, etc. (complex carbohydrates).

Fast-burning foods are foods that contain sugar, white flour, etc. (refined carbohydrates).

Fibre-containing foods are bran-containing foods, whole wheat, grains, seeds, vegetables like green beans, peas, sem (papry), marrow, mealies, spinach, methie, fruit with skin, dried fruit especially dried apricots, figs and prunes, almonds, etc.

Meals should be well-balanced, containing foods from each food group, i.e. fruits, vegetables, meat/chicken/fish, bread/cereals and dairy products. Fried foods should be limited. They cause indigestion, heart-burn, and weight problems.

AVOID

Fried and fatty foods.

Foods containing too much sugar.

Over-eating especially at sehri.

Too much tea at sehri. Tea makes you pass more urine taking with it valuable mineral salts that your body would need during the day.

Smoking cigarettes. If you cannot give up, cut down gradually starting a few weeks before Ramadhan.

EAT

Complex carbohydrates at sehri so that the food lasts longer.

Haleem is an excellent source of protein and is a slow-burning food.

Dates are excellent source of sugar, fibre, carbohydrates, potassium & magnesium.

Almonds are rich in protein and fibre with less fat.

Bananas are a good source of potassium, magnesium and carbohydrates.

DRINK

As much water or fruit juices as possible between iftar and bedtime so that your body may adjust fluid levels in time.

Problems to Avoid

CONSTIPATION

Constipation can cause piles (haemorroids), fissures (cracks in anal canal) and indigestion, with a bloated feeling. Causes: Too much refined foods, too little water and not enough fibre in the diet.

Remedy: Avoid refined foods, increase water intake, use bran in baking, brown flour when making roti.

INDIGESTION AND WIND

Causes: Over-eating. Excessive fried and fatty foods, spicy foods, and foods that produce wind e.g. eggs, cabbage, lentils, fizzy drinks like Cola also produce gas.

Remedy: Do not over-eat, drink fruit juices or water. Avoid fried foods, add ajmor to wind-producing foods.

LETHARGY ('low blood pressure')

Excessive sweating, weakness, tiredness, lack of energy, dizziness, especially on getting up from sitting, paleness and feeling faint are symptoms associated with "low blood pressure". This tends to occur towards the afternoon.

Causes: Too little fluid intake, decreased salt intake.

Remedy: Keep cool, increase fluid and salt intake.

Caution: Low blood pressure should be confirmed by taking a blood pressure reading when symptoms are present. Persons with high blood pressure may need their medication adjusted during Ramadhan. They should consult their doctor.

HEADACHE

Causes: Caffeine and tobacco-withdrawal, too much exercise, lack of sleep, hunger usually occur during the day and worsen towards the evening. When associated with "low blood pressure", the headache can be quite severe and can also cause nausea before Iftar.

Remedy: Cut down caffeine and tobacco slowly starting a week or two before Ramadhan. Herbal and caffeine-free teas may be substituted. Reorganise your schedule during the Ramadan so as to have adequate sleep.

LOW BLOOD SUGAR

Weakness, dizziness, tiredness, poor concentration, perspiring easily, feeling shaky (tremor), headache, and palpitations are symptoms of low blood sugar.

Causes in non-diabetics: Excessive sugar consumption i.e. refined carbohydrates especially at suhur (sehri). The body produces too much insulin causing the blood glucose to drop.

Remedy: Eat something at sehri, and limit sugar-containing foods and drinks.

Caution: Diabetics may need to adjust their medication in Ramadan, consult your doctor.

MUSCLE CRAMPS

Causes: Inadequate intake of calcium, magnesium and potassium foods.

Remedy: Eat foods rich in these minerals e.g. vegetables, fruit, dairy products, meat and dates.

Caution: Those on high blood pressure medication and with kidney stone problems should consult their doctor.

PEPTIC ULCERS, HEART BURN, AND GASTRITIS

Increased acid levels in an empty stomach aggravate the above conditions. It causes a burning feeling in the stomach area and can extend up to the throat. Spicy foods, coffee, and Cola drinks worsen these conditions.

Medications are available to control acid levels in the stomach. People with proven peptic ulcers and hiatus hernia should consult their doctor well before Ramadhan.

KIDNEY STONES

Kidney stones may occur in people who have less liquids to drink. Therefore, it is essential to drink extra liquids so as to prevent stone formation.

JOINT PAINS

Causes: Extra salah during Ramadhan increases pressure on the knee joints. In the elderly and those with arthritis this may cause pain, stiffness, swelling and discomfort.

Remedy: Lose weight so that the knees do not have to carry any extra load. Exercise the lower limbs before Ramadhan so that they can be prepared for the additional strain. Being physically fit allows greater fulfilment, thus enabling one to be able to perform salah with ease.

Source: Dr. Farouk Haffejee

Islamic Medical Association of South Africa - Durban

A Healthy Ramadhan

2007-09-11T05:07:00.000-07:00

By Dr.Farouk Haffejee, edited by Dr. Abu Said

One of the miracles of Islam is the month of Ramadhan, a month in which we can cleanse ourselves, not only spiritually, but physically as well. Ramadhan is a time of worship, but physical ailments can sometimes cause us to lose our spiritual focus. Here is some useful advice on how to avoid common problems that occur during Ramadhan.

'Detox' yourself

If you are in the habit of drinking several cups of tea, coffee or other drinks that contain caffeine, start cutting back one to two weeks before Ramadhan begins. Tea and coffee contain caffeine which is addictive and can cause severe headaches on withdrawal.

If you are a smoker, start cutting down the amount you smoke one to two weeks before Ramadhan. Ramadhan is an ideal month to stop smoking completely.

Ramadhan Diet

During Ramadhan, your diet should not differ very much from your normal diet and should be as simple as possible. The ideal diet should maintain your normal weight, neither decreasing nor increasing it during the month. However, if you are overweight, Ramadhan is an ideal time to lose weight.

To prepare for a long day of fasting, slow-digesting foods and foods with lots of fibre are better than fast-digesting foods. Slow-digesting foods last between 8 and12 hours, while fast-digesting foods last only for 2 to 4 hours.

- Slow-digesting foods contain grains and seeds. Examples are barley, wheat, oats, millet, semolina, beans, lentils, etc.; whole meal flour; whole meal pasta; unpolished rice. They are also known as complex carbohydrates.

- Fibrous foods contain bran, examples are cereals; whole wheat or whole meal flour; grains and seeds, such as beans and lentils; vegetables such as green beans, peas, marrow, spinach, beetroot leaves which are rich in iron, etc.; fruit with skin, dried fruit, especially dates, dried apricots, figs, prunes, etc.; nuts.

- Fast-digesting foods contain refined carbohydrates such as sugar, white flour, white rice, white pasta, etc.

The ideal diet is well-balanced, containing foods from each food group – fruits, vegetables, meat, chicken or fish, bread, cereals and dairy products.

What to Eat

- Eating complex carbohydrates for suhur will help you fast without feeling too hungry. Examples of complex carbohydrates are muesli, bran-rich cereals, whole meal or brown bread, beans, lentils, etc.;

- Soups can be an excellent source of slow-burning food and protein, especially if made from barley and wheat;

- Dates are an excellent source of sugar, fibre, carbohydrates, potassium and magnesium;
- Almonds are rich in protein and fibre and are not fatty. Ground almonds and milk make a healthy drink;

- Bananas are a good source of carbohydrates, potassium and magnesium;

- Eat oven-grilled samosas rather than fried samosas.

What to Drink

Drink as much water or fruit juices as possible between iftar and bedtime so that your body can adjust fluid levels for the next day.

What to Avoid

- Fried and fatty foods should be avoided, they cause indigestion, heartburn, weight problems and blood circulation problems;

- Spicy foods and sauces;

- Foods containing too much sugar and refined carbohydrates;

- Overeating at suhur and iftar;

- Caffeinated drinks like tea, coffee, fizzy drinks, etc.;

- Smoking.

Common Problems

Constipation

Constipation can cause piles (haemorrhoids), fissures (painful cracks in the anal canal) and indigestion with a bloated feeling.

Causes: Eating too many refined carbohydrates, drinking too little water and not eating enough fibre.

Remedy: Eat more fibre and complex carbohydrates, drink more water, use bran for baking, and use brown flour when making bread.

Indigestion and Wind

Causes: Overeating causes indigestion, as does eating too much fried and fatty food, spicy food and food that produces wind, for example, eggs, cabbage, lentils, beans, carbonated drinks.

Remedy: Do not overeat, and drink adequate amounts of water and fruit juices. Avoid fried and fatty foods. Add thymol or celery seeds to lentils and beans.

Lethargy (Low blood pressure)

Symptoms: Weakness, tiredness, lack of energy, dizziness, especially when getting up from a lying or sitting position, a pale appearance and feeling faint. This tends to occur at the end of the day when you need more energy for worship.

Causes: Not drinking enough water, not enough salt in the diet, not eating enough before the fast begins and at iftar.

Remedy: Increase fluid and salt intake. Eat enough to sustain you through the next day. Drink at least one litre of water between iftar and bedtime.

Caution: If you have high blood pressure you may need your medication adjusted for the month of Ramadhan. Diuretics should be avoided.

Headaches

Causes: Caffeine and tobacco withdrawal, doing too much during the day, hunger, stress, lack of sleep etc.

Remedy: Reduce or eliminate caffeine intake one or two weeks before Ramadhan. Herbal teas and decaffeinated coffee can help. Reorganise your schedule so that you have enough time to perform your usual chores and tasks, and make sure you have enough rest.

Low Blood Sugar

Symptoms: Weakness, dizziness, tiredness, poor concentration, trembling, inability to do physical activities, headaches and palpitations.

Causes: Excessive sugary foods, for example, refined carbohydrates especially in the morning before the fast begins (suhur).

Remedy: Reduce the amount of sugary foods and drinks you consume, especially for suhur. Eat more complex carbohydrates. This applies people who are not diabetics. Diabetics will need to adjust their medication during Ramadhan. Please consult your doctor.

Muscle Cramps

Causes: Not enough calcium or magnesium in the diet.

Remedy: Eat foods rich in above minerals, for example fruit and vegetables, dairy products, meat, dried fruit and dates.

Caution: If you are on medication for high-blood pressure or are prone to kidney stones, consult your doctor.

Heartburn, Gastritis, Hiatus Hernia and Peptic Ulcers

Heartburn comes as a burning pain in the stomach area and under the ribs radiating up the chest to the throat. Increased levels of acid in an empty stomach during Ramadhan can aggravate heartburn and ulcers.

Causes: Spicy foods, especially sauces, can cause this, as well as coffee, carbonated drinks, and fatty and fried foods.

Remedy: Avoid all the above foods. Do not overeat. Have a few small meals instead of one big meal, eat a little after iftar and another snack after the tarawih prayer for example.

Medication is available (Gaviscon and PPIs) to control acid levels in the stomach. These should be taken daily for the whole month of Ramadhan.

Kidney Stones

Kidney stones may not be noticed for months or even years after they are formed.

Causes: Some people are prone to produce stones in the kidney. Even if you are not prone, not drinking enough liquids to flush out the kidneys can cause stones to form.

Remedy: Drink lots of water between iftar and bedtime. If you are prone to kidney stones you must also decrease the amount of calcium you eat by avoiding calcium-rich foods such as dairy products.

Joint Pains

Causes: The extra prayers of Ramadhan can often increase the pressure on the knee joints. In the elderly and those suffering from arthritis, this may result in pain, stiffness, swelling and discomfort.

Remedy: Lose weight so that your knees do not have to carry extra load. Exercise your lower body before Ramadhan by walking 30 to 45 minutes three times a week so that your knees will be prepared for the additional strain.

Being physically fit will help you perform your prayers with ease.

Al-Maqrizi: Formative Period in Islamic History and Its Cosmic Significance

2007-08-30T01:14:00.000-07:00

By: C.E. Bosworth

The scene of early stage of Islamic history that is flourished by some chronicle events is presented well by Al-Maqrizi in his Kitab an-Niza`, especially his description of the conflict between Banu Umayya and Banu Hashim. Similarly, he also makes some important points relating to the early Islamic period in his other treatise, namely: Kitab Imta’. Unlike Kitab Imta` which presenting the story of the prophet and also depicting the relationship between Banu Umayya and Banu Abbas briefly, Kitab Niza’ explains much deeper and further about the disputation between Umayyads and Hashimids.

Unfortunately, Al-Maqrizi tends to endorse one of them regarding his acknowledging many sources to depict the events of pre-Islamic, early Islamic, and Umayya periods, but none of the Abbasid periods. Furthermore, he also employs Shi’i materials to make hostile criticism on the Abbasids. Actually, it is rare and taboo to occur in the historical account of prominent historian like Al-Maqrizi. However, he still contributes valuable reports on the process of succession after the death of prophet and its disagreements among Quraish’s clans.

He writes that in the first stage of succession, the minority clan of Quraish, that is Banu Taym (Abu Bakar) and Adi (Umar bin Khattab), stand to the power as caliphs. Subsequently, Umayyad or Abd Sham (Utsman bin Affan) and Hashim (Ali bin Abi Thalib) became the successors. Those four caliphs are better known as al-khulafa’ ar-rasyiduun.

In the An-Niza`, Al-Maqrizi begins with a crucial question about the way of Banu Umayyad to usurp the power whereas they have no close relationship with the prophet. Furthermore they also prolonged resistance to Muhammad apostleship in the Mekka period. In his conclusion, the answer of that question is since they have no claim through hereditary, nor through clan solidarity, nor through primacy of conversion, the Umayyad legitimized their rebellion to stand to the power.

Indeed, Abdu Shams clan was excluded from the Dzawul Qurba’s category. Although their genealogy is originated from Abd Manaf as Banu Hashim and Banu Muttalib, because of their rejection to Muhammad apostleship in Mekka period, they are not included in Dzawul Qurba. The other Abd Manaf clan which is not embraced in Dzawul Qurba is Banu Naufal.
In the end of Al-Maqrizi’s explanation, he notes the parallel between Hebrew history and the development of Islamic caliphate regarding its succession and the beginning and the end of Islamic caliphates and Judaic kingdoms.

In this article, C.E. Bosworth makes valuable review by introducing some main ideas of the an-Niza’. Furthermore, he also compares al-Maqrizi’s work in the an-Niza` with his other book, namely, Kitab al-Imta`. However, the author of this article may not see the lack of Al-Maqrizi’s exposition. Iti is important, in my opinion, to criticize Al-Maqrizi’s course of Islamic history by providing some facts that sometimes there was a cooperation or an agreement between Banu Hashim and Banu Umayyad. For example, In Al-Khulafa ar-Rasyiduun period, they have same enemy such as Madinan Jews or the infidels of Mekka, then, they went to the war together in the name of Islam.

“THE SCHOOL OF ISFAHAN”

2007-08-30T00:04:00.000-07:00

Introduction

The period in Islamic Philosophy from the death of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi in 672/1274 to the beginning of what has come to be known as the “School of Isfahan”, which may replaced during the latter part of the tenth/sixteenth century, encompasses some 300 years of intense philosophical activity on many fronts, an understanding of which is essential in order to comprehend the changes, which the speculative sciences underwent in the Safavid era.

Unfortunately, to a certain extent, this period has not received the attention which the earlier and later period have enjoyed in the history of Islamic Philosophy. To some extent this lack of attention may be attributed to the tendency of writers in this period to produce commentaries, supercommentaries, glosses, superglosses and marginalia on the works of their predecessors rather that to write new texts and to the tendency of many modern reseachers to see such writing as a sign of intellectual stagnation. This view needs to be revised, if the richness and importance of these texts is to be understood, for it is in the elaboration od the basic materials of Islamic Philosophy in both commenting texts and the original texts during this period that the ideas which gradually accumulated to produce the later flowering of the intellectual sciences can be found.

With the advent of the Safavid (reigned 907/1501-1145/1732) in Persia in the early tenth/sixteenth century, the nomocentric, dogmatic forces in Islamic intellectual dsisposition immediately found a favourable political climate. The anxiety of legitimacy was particularly acute in the case of the Safavids. The probability that Shaykh Safi al-Din (d. 735/.1335), the founder of the Safavid order, was perhaps a Sunni made the Safavid monarchs, from Shah Isma’il I (ruled 907/1501-930/1524) onward, particularly anxious to demonstrate and institutionalize their Shi’i affiliation.
With the restoration of the Iranian empire and the reign of Shàh ‘Abbàs I (1587-1629), Isfahan became the capital of the Islamic arts and sciences, and the centre of spiritual culture in Iran. The thinkers who began to proliferate in Iran at that time should be grouped under the heading of ‘School of Isfahan’. There were many different orientations within this school. Nevertheles, once Shiism had definitely come out of hiding, vast works began to make their appearance (such as those by Mullà Sadrà, Qàdì Sa’ìd Qummì and others), in which the hadith of the Imams bore fruit in philosophical meditation.

The Iranian biographical-bibliographical catalogues too often make a summary distinction between Peripatetics (mashsha’un) and Platonist (ishraqiyun). First and foremost, the term ‘Peripatetics’ does not have quite the same meaning for our philosophers as it does for us, if only because of the Theology attributed to Aristotle, a work greatly popular among them. On the other hand (for the same reason) it is almost the exception to find a pure Peripatetic among them, a who is not more or less steeped in neo-Platonism and who is not eo ipso, in one way or another, almost an ishraqi.

Major Figures of the “School of Isfahan”

1. Mir Damad

A first and famous example is Mir Damad (Muhammad Baqir Astarabadi, who died in 1040/ 1631-1632), ‘the teacher of thinking’ to several generations of Shiite philosophers, and the greatest name of the School of Isfahan. He is often classed among the mashsha’un; and while this is not innacurate, this ‘Peripatetic’ has left ecstatic confessions of poignant beauty, with clear echoes of al-Suhrawardi, and he chose the pseudonym Ishraq. The college where he taught, the Madrasa Sadr, with its big gardens, still function in Isfahan.

Mir Damad left around forty works on both Arabic and Persian, noted for their abstruseness and almost entirely unedited, as though somewhat eclipsed by those of his briliant pupil Mulla Sadra. His books are: Book of the Burning Coals (Qabasat), a summa of his researches on Avicenna, written in Arabic; Book of the Burning Brands (jadhawat, written in Persian; these fanciful titles have no bearing whatever on the seriousness of the text), perhaps he gives freer rein to his personal vision. On of the problem that preoccupied him was that of finding a solution to the dillema of cosmology: a world ab aeterno, or a world which come into existence in time (as the mutakallimun professed) before there was any time? Between the eternally existing and the event which came into existence in time, he sought a solution in an eternal coming-to-be (huduth dahri), an eternally new event—a concept laden with implications for the events of hierohistory, and which entailed the further concept of an ‘imaginary time’ which was to inspire heated polemics.

Among Mir Damad’s many pupils, mention can only be made here of a few of the most famous. First among these is Sayyid Ahmad ibn Zaynal-‘Abidin al-‘Alawi (died between 1054/1644 and 1060/1650), a young cousin of his who became his pupil and then his son-in-law. His writings on philosophy are important and comprise about ten works. Besides the commentaries on his teacher’s difficult treatises, there is a vast opus on Avicenna’s Shifa’ entitled The Key to the Shifa’, in which the author makes express reference to Avicenna’s ‘Oriental philosophy’; a long introduction to a philosophical and theosophical tafsir of the Quran (Lata’if-i ghaybi’ in Persia), and others.
Another pupil wrote a monumental commentary of one thousand two hundred folio pages on The Book of the Burning Coals (Qabasat), an entire life’s work, Muhammad ibn ‘Ali-Rida ibn al-Aqajani (completed his work in 1071/1661). Another pupil of Mir Damad, Qutb al-Din Muhammad Ashkivari (also known as Sharif-i Lahiji, who died after 1075/1664-1665) wrote a vast raphsody in Arabic and Persian, which divides the traditions, quotations and commentaries concerning the ancient sages prior to Islam, the philosophers and spiritual adepts of Sunni Islam, and finally the Imams and the great figures among the Shiites thinkers and adepts, into three great cycles. The chapter on Zoroaster contains a remarkable comparison of the Twelve Imam of the Shiite with the Saoshyant or eschatological Saviour of the Zoroastrians. He also wrote a treatise on the mundus imaginalis and a commentary on the Quran which employs a Shiite symbolic hermeneutic (ta’wil).

Lastly, Mulla Shamsa Gilani, whose work, amounting to about fifteen treatises hitherto confined to libraries, seem to us of increasing importance as its reconstruction proceeds. He was an Iranian who came from the shores of the Caspian Sea, and for many years he followed the teaching of Mir Damad, whose doctrines he expanded in his books. He was a great traveller (he had travelled aover almost all of Iran, as well as in Iraq, Syaria and Hijaz). He was a younger co-disciple of Mulla Sadra, but unlike him he remained faithful to the metaphysics of essence. Although they criticized each other in their respective books, they conducted a friendly correspondence with each other. Worth mentioning here are his Treatise on the Ways of Certitude, his Treatise on the Manifestation of Perfection to the Companions of Truth, and his Treatise on the Coming-to-be of the World, in which he supports the thesis of Mir Damad that summarized above.

2. Shaykh Baha’ al-Din ‘Amili

The most colourful figure of the Safavid period was Baha’ al-Din ‘Amili, better known as Shaykh Baha’i. His father was the leader of the Shi’ah community of ‘Amil and a student of Shahid-i Thani. Baha’ al-Din, who was born in Baalbek in 953/1546, was then only thirteen years old and well qualified to master the Persian language.. in Persia he continued his studies in the religious sciences, poetry, and hikmat and soon became the leading scholar of his day and the Shaykh al-Islam of Isfahan. Despite his nearness to the court and necessary participation in worldly life he was a gnostic and spent many of the last years of his life travelling with the dervishes and visiting various Sufi masters. He finally passed away in 1030/1622 while returning from the hajj.

Shaykh Baha’ al-Din was the leading theologian and jurist of his time and the leader of the ‘ulama’ of Isfahan. Some of his important works include Jami’-I ‘abbasi on jurisprudence in Persian; Fawa’id al-samadiyyah on Arabic grammar which is still in wide use; atreatise on algebra, the Khulasah fi’l hisab; several treatises on astronomy including the Tashrih al-aflak; a treatise on the astrolabe, ‘Urwat al-wuthqa; general Quranic commentaries; many works on various aspects of the Shari’ah; the Kashkul, a collection of Arabic and Persian writings which ranks among the most famous Sufi works; a series of mathnawis such as Bread and Sweet, Cat and Mouse, Milk and Sugar, and the Tuti-Namah.

3. Mir Abu’l-Qasim Findiriski

The third of the famous triumvirate of sageas from Isfahan, Mir Findiriski, spent much of his life travelling outside Persia, especially in India where he was highly respected by most of the princes and where he made acquaintance of many Hindu sages. He became well acquainted with Hinduism and even wrote a commentary upon the Persian translation of the Yoga Vasistha by Nizam al-Din Panipati, which is one of the major works on Hinduism in Persian. In the Muslim sciences he was a master in philosophy (hikmat), mathematics and medicine, and taught the Shifa’ and the Qanun of Ibn Sina in Isfahan where he dies in 1050/1640.

Mir Findiriski composed several important treatises including one on motion (al-harakah), another on the arts and sciences in society (sana’iyyah) the book on Yoga already mentioned, Usul al-fusul on Hindu wisdom, and a history of the Safavids. The most famous of his poems is a qasidah, based upon that of Nasir ibn Khusraw Dihlawi, which is one of the best known poems on hikmat in Persian.
Mir Findiriski occupied himself not only with methaphysics and the theoretical sciences but also with the sciences of society, of traditional society in which the social structure itself has a directly based on methaphysical principles.

4. Mulla Muhsin Fayd Kashani

Muhammad ibn Shah Murtada ibn Shah Mahmud, better known as Mulla Muhsin or Fayd Kashani, is after Mulla Sadra the most famous of the sages of the generation following that of Mir Damad, Shaykh Baha’i and Mir Findiriski. Born in Kashan in 1007/1600, he spent some years at Qum and then came to Shiraz to complete his studies with Mulla Sadrawhose daughter he later married. Mulla Muhsin’s writings display a harmonious integration of reason, revelation, and gnosis with lesser emphasis upon reason. He succeeded in the Shi’ah world to bring about a complete harmony between Law and spiritual life, Shari’ah and Tariqah.

5. Mulla Muhammad Baqir Majlisi

Muhammad Taqi (1003/1594-1070/1659), known as the first Majlisi, was one of the students of Shaykh Baha’i and an outstanding theologian and Sufi of his time. His son, Muhammad Baqir (1037/1628-1110/1699), the second Majlisi, however, surpassed his father in fame and power and became the most dominant figure of Shi’ism. Having studied with his own father, Mulla Khalil Qazwini, and Mulla Muhsin Fayd, he in turn became the master of over a thousand disciples including Sayyid Ni’matallah Jaza’iri, wellknown for his many writings, especially the account of his own life as a student,
The second Majlisi is especially famous for revivifying the various branches of the Shi’ite sciences and for assembling the writings of the earlier doctors of Shi’ism and prophetic hadiths into encyclopedias which have become the main reference for all who undertake religious education in the Shi’ah madrasahs.

Conclusion

This form of wisdom or hikmat, some features of which we have sought to outline here, did not die with the termination of the Safavid dynasty. Likewise, the school of hikmat continued through the students of Mulla Sadra and others from generation to another and it produced indirectly such figures as Shaykh Ahmad Ahsa’i, the founder of the Shaykhi movement, who was opposed to Mulla Sadra but also Hajji Mulla Hadi Sabziwari, and several other outstanding figures in the Qajar period, the light of whose teachings has not yet disappeared from the horizon of Persia. One can hardly understand the intellectual life of Islam in its totality without taking into account this last major periodof Muslim philosophycal activity, lasting from the Sfavid period to the present.

E. Sri Mulyati

(Master Student of Islamic Philosophy- ICAS Jakarta)

Can A Philosophy Be Islamic?

2007-08-30T00:02:00.000-07:00

By: Moh. Syifa Amin Widigdo.

It could be true that Western civilization could not reach a peak of enlightenment without an acquaintance with early philosophy that was introduced by Muslim thinkers. Indeed, Islamic philosophy stimulated Western tradition to move from an intellectual darkness due to a superiority of the Church to the intellectual enlightenment in Medieval Ages. Nonetheless, some of Western scholars did not acknowledge Islamic philosophy as Islamic and have a significant role in terms of philosophical tradition by virtue of Islamic philosophy considered as Graeco-Alexandrian philosophy in Arabic form. Although their openness towards an advanced thought was much more induced by Islamic philosophy, but some notions should be clarified. Therefore, it is necessary to pose some skeptical questions: what is Islamic philosophy? Can a philosophy be Islamic? What are salient features proved such Islamic character?

In the first place, prior to a deeper discussion on the philosophy of Islam, it would be better to clarify first the definition of philosophy. It is grammatically widely known that philosophy word taken from Greek’ term, that is philos (love) and sophos (wisdom). In English word, it equals to “love of wisdom.” Unfortunately, there is no single agreement of terminological definition although the characteristics of philosophy are obviously grasped. Some would say that philosophy is a science that addresses the general states of existence. Seyyed Hossein Nasr listed some definitions; one of those is knowledge of all existing things qua existents. Above all, philosophy in my view aims to disclose a deepest and a clearest conceptualization of the existents through intellectual or spiritual activity in order to reach the truth or the wisdom. It could be carried out by acquired knowledge (al-`ilm al-hushuly), which resulted from intellectual inquiry, or knowledge by presence (al-`ilm al-hudhury), which produced by spiritual activity.

In addition, the philosophy is Islamic not only by virtue of the facts that was developed in Arabic world and by Muslims but also Islamic teachings and principles are sources and inspirations of the philosophy. It is obvious that Islam as religion, teachings, and its adherents contributes significantly to the development of philosophy. For example, Ibn Sina who has been very influential and often quoted philosopher until this contemporary era would go to a mosque and pray when confronted with a difficult problem. Similarly, Ibnu Rushd was not only concentrating on the philosophical activity during his life, but also he was an embodiment of the authority of Islamic law as the chief judge (qadi) of Cordova.

Moreover, Islamic philosophy introduces several valuable notions in a development of philosophy. In terms of ontology, the hierarchy of existence was grasped differently from that of contemporary ‘Western philosophy’. As well as ontology, the methods and the sources of acquiring knowledge in the light of epistemology were also not equal to those coming from ‘the West’. In the following points (third point), I elucidate the concept of epistemology and ontology in Islamic philosophy clearly.

Secondly, it is basis of epistemology and ontology in Islamic philosophy. Grasping epistemology and ontology is imperative since both are foundations in which Islamic elements appear. To start with, I will begin from notion of epistemology in Islamic tradition, then concept of ontology later.
Epistemology, as a science which discusses human knowledge and the evaluation of its types and the criteria of their validity, at least embrace four basic principals; sources of knowledge, limits of knowledge, methods of knowledge, validity of knowledge. According to Muttahari, there are five sources of knowledge, namely: empirical nature, rational realms, imaginative world, spiritual world, and history. Some Muslim thinkers add sacred text in this category. To acquire each of those sources, human needs five tools by which he can reach the sources, that is; senses, reason, imagination (mutakhayyilah), intuition (qalb), and historical science.

However, knowledge is also limited by its own limitation. It might be widely known that knowledge is very powerful but in some extents it has obstacles since can not reach the knowledge of Dzat al_Wujud. Furthermore, reason as a tool of obtaining knowledge incapable to deal with moral as imperative category and imagination also can not acquire spiritual world. Nevertheless, this condition does not hamper human being to attain knowledge in a broader sense. They could acquire objects of knowledge through several methods; ranging from observation (experiment/tajribi) for physical world, logical world (burhany) for non-physical objects, and intuitive world (irfany) for non-physical objects by direct. Then, to assess results of the methods application whether produces a valid organized knowledge or not, it is necessary to know measurements of knowledge validity. At least there are three criteria of validity, those are: coherence (logically), correspondence (with empirical facts), and pragmatically in terms of its instrumental function.

The following concept is ontology in Islamic philosophy. It is very distinctive for several unique conceptions introduced by Muslim philosophers. In the first place, it is theory of emanation. Mehdi Ha`iri Yazdi called it the theory of hierarchy of beings (existence). Differ from the concept of absorption which is defined as the ascendance movement of light to the First Principle, conversely, emanation is the descending movement from the First Principle to the next principles. In addition, according to Ibn Shina, emanation is that by which one existence is issued from another, and is dependent on the other without intermediation with matter, instrument, and time.

Secondly, it is the concept of Cosmology. In early historical accounts of cosmology, the word of ‘cosmology’ was defined as a branch of metaphysic which embraces material nature in its general aspects. In addition, Ibn Khaldun cited that cosmology is not only physical entities, because it was originated from spiritual entities. Therefore cosmology is the world view that endeavors to search the origin and the composition of the objects which originally emerge from the spiritual entity.
Thirdly, there are two notions of existence, namely, hierarchy of existence and structure (division) of existence. To start with, the stages of existence were elucidated by Al-Farabi. For him, there are four levels of beings; firstly, God as a prima cause, secondly, Angels as immaterial beings, thirdly, The Celestial World which consists of a wide range of sky’s objects, fourthly, the Terrestrial World which embraces earthly objects. The other Islamic philosopher, namely Pahlawi, makes an incredible notion of the hierarchy of existence, those are: a). Existence as negatively conditioned. It is also perveived as an eternal self-concealing God. b). Existence as non-conditioned in which reflects the self revealing of God, the unfolded existence, and the pure luminous radiation from source of God. c). Existence as “conditioned by something”. This is called as particular existence in which quiddity or actualized of unfolded existence and intrinsic manifestation of the unitary reality of “existence” is available.
Subsequently, as Toshihiko Izutsu noted that the existence was divided into four divisions: firstly, the absolute existence (self-evident being). It is the primary concept of existence. Secondly, determined existence in which the existence is determined by quiddity. Thirdly, General Unit; it is all external existential realities considered in their original state of unity. Ibnu Arabi names this existence as self manifesting of the Absolute. Fourthly, Particular Unit; it is a concrete external actualized in the world of external realities.

Thirdly, the history of Islamic philosophy would drive us to sink into the past and to reconstruct the richness of its wisdoms, not to just glorify the past in the sake of self-pride and luxury. In terms of searching of those wisdoms, it is necessary however, to understand some influential school thoughts and its outstanding proponents.

In the early period of Islamic philosophy, Peripatetic Philosophy (901-1037 M) was well known. The most prominent figures of the philosophy are Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi and Ibnu Sina. Indeed, they are founders of Islamic philosophy in its first emergence due to their acquaintance with Platonic and Aristotelian tradition. To strengthen their conviction and commitment on religious truth, they tried to harness Aristotelian's logic and neo-platonic philosophy as scientific explanations. In fact, the notion of emanation of Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina is very influential towards following philosophers. Some maintains that subsequent philosophers were just footnotes of peripatetic philosophy, especially of Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina.

In the second wave of Islamic philosophy (1058-1111 M), the discourse was much more colored by philosophical theology, sort of mysticisms, and also criticism towards peripatetic philosophy. The most outstanding thinker in this era was Al-Ghazali. In his early stage of scholarship, he wrote Maqashid al-Falasifah (The aims of Philosophers). He did what peripatetic tradition tried to prove that the truth can be achieved through rational and logical inquiry. However, finally he did not satisfy with the philosophical investigations in acquiring true knowledge. His work, namely Tahafut al-Falasifah (The incoherence of philosophers), strongly criticizes and challenges claims of philosopher of the truth. For him, philosophers are unable to prove, from a theoretical point of view, the religious truth.

Afterwards, Ibnu Rushd (1126-1198) in the western land of Islam revived the spirit of peripatetic tradition by presenting critics on the opponents of peripatetic philosophy (Al-Ghazali) and writing several volumes on Aristotle works. The Tahafut el-Tahafut (Incoherence of incoherence) refuted points by point the objections of Al-Ghazali on philosophy. Ibnu Rushd endeavored to affirm the superiority of a religion based on revelation as opposed to reason linked to a purely rational religion (philosophy). It can be seen from his accounts, either in Tahafut el-Falasifah (Incoherence of incoherence) or Fashlul Maqal (Decisive Chapter).

It seems that philosophy after Ibnu Rushd was disappearing. But it was developing in other forms of philosophy. One of the most prolific philosophers after Ibn Rushd was Shihabuddin Suhrawardi (1154-1191 M). He introduced illumination school of thought. Illumination theory, however, based on the mystical enlightenment then expressed in rational explanation. Suhrawardi symbolized his conception by The Light. Differ from that of emanation theory, the light is illuminated rather than emanated from the source of light through certain gradation of light. The quality of light depends on what he called an intimacy toward the source of knowledge. Furthermore, this theory introduced a new epistemology, namely knowledge by presence (al-`ilm al-hudhuri al-ishraqi) instead of peripatetic epistemology, namely, knowledge by acquired knowledge (al-`ilm al-hushuli).

In the peak of the philosophical achievement was acquired by Shadruddin Syirazi (1571-1640) who synthesized all philosophical traditions prior to him under a title; al-hikmah al- muta`aliyah (transcendental philosophy). It is mainly based on the theory of four journeys concerning transcendent philosophy and also science of beings. In terms of being theory, he presented three ideas, those are: wahdat al-wujud (unity of being) which was epitomized by the rays of the sun in relation to the sun, tashkik al-wujud (gradation of being); the hierarchy of being occurs because of different degrees of intensity toward absolute being, and ashalat al-wujud (principality of existence) which emphasized the superiority of wujud (existence) over the mahiyyah (essence).

Fourthly, it is notion of practical philosophy (al-hikmah al-amaliyah). This kind of philosophy differs from theoretical philosophy (al-hikmah an-nazhariyyah) in terms that practical primarily deals with how the things ought to be while the theoretical concerns with the things as it is or the essence of everything. However, the basis of practical philosophy itself actually dwells in the theoretical philosophy. As Yamani employed, when the theoretical domain ends its task of searching the essence of something, then immediately the practical philosophy begins to work.

In addition, the practical philosophy was divided into three branches, that are; ethics (regarding individual), domestic economy (regarding the family), and politics (regarding the community). To make it more understandable, it is necessary to elucidate accounts of some of those practical branches, especially ethics and politics. It is due to both ethics and politics are closely related to a perfection of individual and society as a foundation of civilization.

In the beginning, the discussion of ethics rotates in the light of achieving perfection and happiness in individual level. The central issue of the ethics at the time is how to carry out an inquiry and to behave in order to become a good man.
Al-Farabi, who is also known as avid student of Plato and Aristotle, tries to combine his predecessors' thought. The nature of human good to him seemingly resides in both political and theoretical activity. In al-Madinah al-Fadhilah and as-Siyasah al-Madaniyyah, Al-Farabi attempts to draw a conclusion that human great happiness is part of rational soul which is separated from a body. It means that human felicity could be reached through closely connection with the active intellect (al-ittisal bil-aql al-fa`al). Apparently Al-Faraby prefers to the theoretical activity to attain a highest degree of happiness rather than that of political or practical philosophy. Because theoretical science was more likely guides him to a close relationship with the active intellect. At a glance it is seemingly true, but it is not.

In Tahsil as-Sa`adah, however, he insists that the isolation of theoretical philosophy from its engagement in society is imperfect philosophy. The true philosophy, in fact, firstly should possess a true insight of theoretical virtue. Subsequently it also should have an ability to actualize the insight in a practical context. Accordingly, human good would be represented by the quality of prophecy. It might be solely possessed by an enlightened political ruler (the prophet) who has capability of translating theory into practice.

Interestingly, Ibnu Bajah and Ibnu Thufail come with conversely understandings. As can be seen from their work, Tadbiir al-Mutawahhid's Ibnu Bajah and Hayy ibn Yaqzhan's Ibnu Thufail, the human good only takes place in philosophical (theoretical) activity alone. As a result, human happiness must be found in isolation instead of an engagement in imperfect society.
However, Ibnu Rushd disagrees with the idea of perfection through isolation. In his Commentary on Plato's Republic, he indeed insists that the best perfection of human being is to participate as philosopher in a society. It might be similar to Al-Farabi's notion of enlightened rulership which is a mark of prophecy. Ibnu Rushd goes further by grounding philosophy in the law. To him, it is only the law which can provide the grounds, the argument why philosopher should return to the cave. Because in achieving the human good or human perfection someone must return to the cave, meaning, involvement in society.

The second notion of practical philosophy is politics. There are many Muslim thinkers concerned political theory. Some of them based their thought on the assumption of equality of men. It renders to a specific theory of political authority. The important figure of proponents of this idea is Abu Bakar ar-Razi. For him, everyone has an opportunity and an ability to obtain knowledge on his own; therefore he has no need to an authority. However, to become a leader of people some one has to possess 'a divine power' and a kind of intuition of reason.

Nevertheless, the bulk of Islamic scholars assume men as imperfect, diverse, or unequal. Hence, people need to a perfect authority which can lead them to the right path, true knowledge, and happiness. This view was hold by philosophers range from Ibnu Muqaffa', Al-Kindi, Al-Balkhi, Qudamah ibn Ja`far, Abu Hatim Ar-Razi, Raghib al-Asfahani, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, Ibnu Bajah, to Ibnu Khaldun with certain of variations and different focuses. For example, philosophers like Al-Kindi and Ibnu Sina emphasize on the perfection of individual at first before bettering a society. Meanwhile Al-Balkhy and Al-Farabi outweigh the welfare of the community and the existence of a city to make an individual good. Above all, they believe in such quality of prophecy (khawass) as a standard of ideal leader which guides them to the happiness in this world and hereafter.
In conclusion, after viewing the real meaning, the historical accounts, the principal notions and examples of practical theories in Islamic philosophy, it is undoubtedly clear that philosophy in Islamic world is Islamic; not only because the thinkers are Muslims or it was developed in Arabic world but also Islamic teachings and principles are sources and inspirations of the philosophy. Subsequently, it could be a point of departure for Muslim societies to reconstruct the richness of wisdoms in their own heritages. Afterward, they would able to construct an advanced civilization rooted in both classical and contemporary thoughts and wisdoms in Islamic world.

Descartes Method to Overcome Skepticism and Its Problems

2007-08-29T21:02:00.001-07:00

By: Istasadhya

I. Introduction

2. Discussion

2.1. Descartes’ life

2.2 Descartes’ Philosophy

2.2.1 The Quest for Certainty

2.2.2 The Certainty of Existence

One truth which stands firm in the face of the storm and is unshaken by the tendencies of doubt- this truth being his thought, which is an indubitable, actual reality.

The idea of God is an idea having an objective reality, since in its objective reality, it is superior to the human thinker and all his ideas. This is because the human thinker is deficient and limited; while the idea of God is the idea of a being absolutely perfect and infinite. Within this thinking self, Descartes an idea of God, and an idea of something so perfect that it could not have been caused in us by anything with less perfection than God Himself. From this he concluded that God must exist which, in turn, guarantees that reason can be trusted. Since we are made in such a way that we cannot help holding certain beliefs ( the so-called ‘clear and distinct perceptions), God would be a deceiver, and thus imperfect, is such beliefs were wrong; any mistakes must be due to our misuse of reason. This is Descartes’ famous epistemological principle of clear and distinct perception.” Thus the idea of God is a must.

Extension. A matter as an extension as it is described by mathematician.
Innate ideas are real primary qualities that express objective reality.

2.2.3 The Argument For Existence of The External World

a. Sensation come to me in voluntarily (I’m unaware of causing them with my will)

b. Therefore, sensations are caused by something external to me

c. Therefore, there exists something external to my mind-external world.
Thus, it is clear that there is another existence outside mind, it is external material world. Nevertheless, Descartes regarding existence of the external world expresses specific reactions of the soul, cause by external influence, such as the idea of sound, odor, light, flavor, heat, and color. They are called secondary qualities that represent subjective reactions. They are successive mental concepts that arise in the mental realm due to the influence of external bodies to which they have no resemblance.

3. Conclusion

BIBLIOGRAPHY

As Sadr, M. Baqir. Our Philosophy. Qum: Ansariyan Publications, 2000
Graid, Edward (ed). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (vol 3 and 8). New York: Routledge, 1998
Hopkin, Richard H., et al. Philosophy Made Simple. Great Britain, 1979
Huemer, Michel (ed). Epistemology. London: Routledge, 2002
Praja, Juhaya S. Aliran-aliran Filsafat dan Etika. Bogor: Kencana, 2003
Yazdi, M. Taqi Misbah. Philosophical Instructions. New York: Binghamton University, 1999
http//www.google.com

Istasadhya,

"Master Student of Islamic Philosophy- ICAS Jakarta"

Islamic World in the Scholars’ Work (A Reflection on Peacock, Hassan, and Woodward’s Account)

2007-08-29T20:57:00.000-07:00

By: Moh. Syifa Amin Widigdo

To observe the world of Islam would be an exciting, challenging and enduring project due to Islamic world is rich culturally and colorful sociologically. In fact, the study of Islam around the world is not only dealing with a wide range of symbols, beliefs, rituals, and other religious practices but also concerning with the religious values, norms, motives, ethos and world views which influence deeply toward human’s civilization.

However, some scholars try to carry out research digging Islamic phenomena in some regions. Firstly, Riaz Hassan focused his study on the conception of Islam and society in Indonesia, Egypt, Pakistan, and Kazakhstan. Then, James L. Peacock conducted the survey on Muslim Puritans phenomena in Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia. Lastly, Mark R. Woodward interested in researching normative piety and mysticism in Java, Indonesia. The main questions properly addressed to those studies will be; beside the differences among them, what are, if any, the common issues among them? What are their uniqueness and distinct ideas? How do they show the Islamic concept of the world and the image of Islam? This paper besides aims to elucidate some points answering questions above, it also in turn intends to attach brief critics and comments strengthening some approaches and propositions in those works.

The Common Grounds and the Strengths

In the first place, it appears that the spirit of reformism within religion and society is the shared issue among Hassan, Woodward, and Peacock. It can be grasped from their accounts which show in certain extents some similar evidences, terminologies, and findings. The first scholar, as sociologist, characterizes a certain type of religiosity which holds a strong religious commitment (piety) and practice Islam rigorously as “Scripturalist-Puritanism” or fundamentalist. This style of religiosity is generally represented by Ulama. Similarly, the second researcher, better known as an Indonesianist, notices that people who highly concern with the shari’ah, ritual, and certain modes of behavior are considered as normative piety or normative Islam. They prefer to perform shari’ah manner in order to guide their daily life rather that other moral conducts. Then the third social scientist finds the trend of religious behavior which is more paying an attention towards the idea of salvation, collectivism, legalism, scripturalism, and purification. He employs an appropriate terminology to call this phenomenon, namely religious reformism or Puritanism.

Furthermore, they also indicate an agreement in identifying the opposing criteria of religious behavior. According to Hassan following Ernest Gellner, unlike fundamentalist, which is well represented by Ulama, there are also people who carry out hierarchical ecstatic medianist style in Islam which is introduced by Saints. The predicate for this style of religiosity is syncretism. In consonant with this respect, Woodward also finds some religious practices which are based on the ‘secrete doctrine’. It is a mystical path to gain the truth and salvation which is usually used by Sufi.
In addition, it is certain that each methodological approaches employed by social scientist above demonstrate certain precious insights. The different point of departure and also the diverse aims of the study carry special uniqueness. Below is the description of the strengths and merits that those scholars have made.

Firstly, it is comparative sociological studies of contemporary Muslim societies. By this way, Hassan undertakes a systematic comparative investigation of everyday beliefs of Muslims with special reference to the middle classes in a number of social settings. As a result, he found that Muslim World is undergoing a religious renaissance with the evidence that the number of religious piety is increasing in many countries. Nevertheless, such piety is actually constructed by the influence of global and societal condition. Global condition is mainly characterized by a hegemonic cultural pattern of the West. It renders Muslim communities to reassert their Islamic identity. While social condition refers to the social construction includes dissatisfaction with the slow and often negligible progress made by national government. It also makes people to strengthen their own ideology and in-group feelings.

Secondly, axiomatic structuralism is an inspiring approach toward religious studies. This analysis might be a critique toward Geertz and Durkheim since the first concerns with the social basis of individual behavior and symbolic communication while the second emphasizes on the relationship between system of social relations and those of religious belief and action. Axiomatic structuralism, in fact, pays much attention to the power of an axiomatic organized system of knowledge instead of social basis or social relation thereby social organization, political constellation, and some others can change.
Luckily, Woodward succeeds employing this theory to observe Islam in Java in excellent way. He perceives religion as an axiomatic organized system of knowledge by which social condition could be transformed. To Woodward, it is simply because axiomatic structures are located in cognitive rather than social sphere. Therefore, it was proven that religious concepts are able to form the basis for social structure and political organization in Java. Indeed, the intellectual and mystical systems of classical Islam have transformed Javanese culture to certain hybrid tradition which is still Islamic.
Thirdly, combining cultural and psychological analysis to explore deeply Islamic tradition in many countries is incredibly fabulous work. It is James L. Peacock who carries out the great research on Islam by harnessing both cultural and psychological approaches. By cultural analysis, it is possible to conduct an interpretative understanding of explicit doctrines, philosophies of life, and also the actor’s essential structure of meaning including values, symbols, and world view. In turn, it will disclose the construction of layers of subjective meaning which illuminate the event. The result of applying this analysis to the study is that Muslim reformism as a cultural category in the lives of Southeast Asian can be grasped. Nevertheless, cultural analysis is still incapable of uncovering the unconsciousness layers of the individuals. Consequently, psychological analysis is needed to unfold the linkage behavioral patterns and conceptions, which are not recognized by subject. In the light of Muslim attitude observation, it makes the study be able to detect behavioral correlates of reformism that are not necessarily recognized by the reformist them selves.

The world view

The World view is a conception of the world rather that behavioral inclinations. It can be seen from Hassan’s Faithlines that question about how to be ideal Muslim as individual or social is very important. The idea of Muslim piety refers to the notion of how to be a good Muslim as a person and the concept of Muslim ummah indicates a great endeavor of Muslims as a community to form high civilized society. In turn, it will influence the image of Islam in public domains.
It seems that Muslim people tend to formulate a distinctive notion in the respect of relation among individual, society, religion, and state. In personal level, Muslims strives to reach a high degree of religious commitment. In the level of society, the community of believers holds primordial loyalties and at the same time they live among other communities respectfully and peacefully. Nevertheless, in conjunction with connection between religion and state there are two main configurations. Firstly, people who assert that religion and state are separated because they have different space. It is differentiated social formation. Secondly is the belief that religion and state are integrated. This category is undifferentiated social formation. Above all, Hassan points out that in order to promote constructive social-cultural, political, moral, and religious role for religion, it may be prudent to keep faithlines separate from the state and thereby prevent them from becoming faultlines of the political terrain.
In addition, according to Woodward, the world view of Islam in Java is a coalition between mystical path and pious religiosity. In the case of modern mystics, the inner (batin and isi) domains of religiosity play a dominant role in the construction of personal world views and inform social behavior, while in that of the reformist Muslims which hold pious religiosity emphasis on the outward (lahir and wadah) that orients behavior. Nevertheless, Javanese religion and society are Islamic because aspects of Muslim doctrine have taken the place of those of Hinduism and Buddhism as the axioms of Javanese culture. Furthermore, Sufi concepts of sainthood, the mystical path and the perfection of man are employed in the formulation of an imperial cult. Therefore it can be said that Islam has penetrated so quickly and so deeply into the fabric of Javanese culture because it was embraced by the royal courts as the basis for a theocratic state.
Meanwhile, Peacock notes that Muslims conception of the world is certainly dominated by the vision of Muslim reformists. It is collectivist than private although their goal is salvation of the soul and rather stricter in purging of ritual, scheduling of time, and streamlining of work. It is due to their tendency for contributions to the wider society, religion, and ethnic group rather than personal and domestic happiness and intimate association with friends. In comparison to Protestant, collectivism and legalism as opposed to individualism and dramatizing the Christ are among the features that distinguish the South Asian Muslim reformist psychology from that of the Protestant ethic.

The Self-Image

It is apparently clear that the image of Muslims society is colored by binary oppositions which is made by scholars themes regarding the existing phenomena. Montgomery Watt which is quoted by Riaz Hassan categorize Muslims into two types of self-image, namely; fundamentalist and liberal. The first maintains intact the belief that Islam is a complete, sufficient, and final religion whereas the second tries to correct that conviction in some respects. Another categorization made by Hassan is the differentiation between High Islam and Folk Islam which resemble to the scripturalist-puritan and pluralistic-flexible in their religious orientation.
Similarly, the distinction between normative piety and syncretism which arisen by Woodward. The piety usually follows Ulama who taught the shari’ah as the guidance of way of daily life and the syncretism seemingly ascribes to those Saints (Sufis) who introduce thariqah as the way of mystical life. Each recognized the importance and legitimacy of the other, the Sufis being concerned with the inward (batin) personal aspects of religious life and the ulama with the outward (zahir) forms of religion and social order.
Likewise two scholars above, Peacock also records such binary opposition as the image of Islam in certain countries. It is reformist (or progressive) and conservative category. The reformist style of religiosity is considered as young, being urbanized, and educated. Their goal in this worldly life is to practice Islam well to gain salvation in the day after and also to reform the belief of non-reformist. In contrast, the conservative one is usually recognized as old, rural, and poorly educated and their aim in this life is to preserve the harmony of the self, society, and the cosmic order.

Conclusion

To conclude, in spite of various point of departure of studying Islam, the three scholars share similar issues when citing the socio-cultural category of Muslim societies, namely Puritanism. Hassal labels this type as Fundamentalist (following Watt’s notion of self image of Islam) while Woodward calls it normative piety and Peacock explicitly names this category as Muslim Puritan. This term refers to certain religious behavior and culture ranging from religious purification, psychology of rationalization, purging of rituals to hold firmly al-Qur’an, al-Hadits, and Islamic Shari’ah generally.
Each of them, however, harness advance theoretical frameworks to explore more about Islam. Hassan strives to compare sociologically the condition of Islam and its conjunction with society in many countries. Woodward utilizes an axiomatic approach to prove that Islam influences deeply to the social and political organization in Javanese culture. Peacock certainly insists psychological analysis, in addition to cultural perspective, to disclose unconsciousness layers of individuals thereby the process of rationalization can be achieved.

Moreover, they also conceptualize certain type of Muslim ideas and images. In fact, Muslim world in Hassan’s account endeavors to be an ideal Muslim either in individual level or community ones. To Woodward, the predicate of Muslim is not only belonged to those who practice a piety normatively but also attributed to who hold modern mysticism or syncretism. All of them are Islamic in Javanese society. For Peacock, the world of Muslim reformists is fuelled by the idea of salvation, a sense of community, and a sense of strictness toward rule and time scheduling. Those notions subsequently derive the portrait of Islamic world. Indeed, Islam seems to be more colored by binary opposition ranging from fundamentalist-liberal (Hassan), normative piety-mystical orientation (Woodward), to purists-syncretists (Peacock).
Therefore, here I note some methodical obstacles in which criticism could be addressed. By such criticism, hopefully, the method or the result of the study will be more appropriate, accurate and comprehensive. Firstly, it is questionable why Hassan does not include the lower and the high class besides the middle class as respondent in his sociological research. By picking merely the middle class up as the sample of the survey, it is obviously difficult to gain “thick description” of Muslim perception toward religion and society. Hence, it is plausible to embrace all social categories thereby we will reach more comprehensive perspectives and wider understandings of Muslim societies. Secondly, Woodward’s axiomatic structuralism rather abandons the phenomenon of why the idea and the movement of Puritanism could penetrate and infiltrate to the ’mysticism world’ which was hold by the royal and its people, and even subsequently live hand in hand with them. It is interesting to see through Foucaultian lens, especially the notion of power, how an economic power, which is associated to the groups of normative piety, operate over political power linked to the Sultanate. Thirdly, cultural and psychological offered by Peacock appears failed to unfold global hegemony as a determinant factor in forming such puritan style of religiosity. If the global politic consideration taken, the finding of the survey might be more, complete and perfect. Wallahua`lam.

Bibliography

Hassan, Riaz, Faithlines: Muslim Conceptions of Islam and Society, Karachi. Pakistan: Oxford Pakistan Paperbacks, 2003.

Woodward, Mark. R., Islam in Java: Normative Piety and Mysticism in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta, Arizona: The University of Arizona Press, 1989.

Peacock, James L., Muslim Puritans: Reformist Psychology in Southeast Asian Islam, Berkeley-Los Angeles-London: University of California Press, 1978.

Ibrahim, Anwar The Asian Renaissance, Kuala Lumpur: Times Books International, 1996.

Pals, Daniel L., Seven Theories of Religion, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Connolly, Peter (ed.), Approaches to the Study of Religion, London and New York: Cassel, 1999.

Paden, William E., Interpreting the Sacred: Ways of Viewing Religion, Boston: Beacon Press, 1992.

Geertz, Clifford, The Religion of Java, Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1976.

THE METAPHYSICAL BASIS OF TAOIST RELATIVISM

2007-08-29T20:52:00.000-07:00

By. Dr. Abdul Hadi W. M.

In Chuang Tze’s philosophy, all so called ‘opposites’ are not really opposed to each other. It is because nothing has a firmly established ‘essence’ in its ontological core.
Beautiful and ugly, good and bad, etc., all these and other comceptual pairs which are sharply distinguished at the level of Reason, are found to be far from being absolute.
The opposites and distinctions, which are generally accepted as cultural, aesthetics, or ethical values, would appear to be neither more nor less than so-called relativism.
This kind of relativism is not an ordinary sort of relativism as understood on the empirical and pragmatic level of social life. It is a peculiar kind of relativism based on a very peculiar kind of mystical intuition.

We may call it as “a mystical intuition of the unity and multiplicity of existence”. It is a philosophy of undifferentiation which is a natural product of a metaphysical experience of Reality. In this kind of experience, Reality is directley witnessed as it unfold and diversities itself unto myriad of things, and than goes back again to the Original Unity (Tao).

Lao Tze, too, looks at the apparent destruction, opposition and contradictions from the point of view of the metaphysical one. From this point of view. All things lose their sharp edges conceptual discrimination and become blended and harmonized.

According to Laop Tze, people tend to imagine that things are essentially distinguishable from one another. They seem to be conceived that these distinctions are all permanent and unalterable. In reality, however, they are simply being deceived by the external and phenomenal aspects of Being.

Everything, in short, is relative, nothing as absolute. We live in a world of relative distinction and relative antitheses. But the majority of men do not realize that these are relative.

This kind of relativism is equalization of opposite and based on a very remarkable intuition of the ontological structure of world. It leads to the chaotic view of things, the essential undifferentiation of things, which are in its dynamic aspect is conceived as “Transmutation of things”.

Key-word : Hua = transmutation (Chuang Tze)
Fan or fu = return (Lao Tze)

The cosmic significance of the Fan (return) has direct relevance to the problem of relativism.

Fan or fu is a dynamic concept. Lao Tze explicates this concept in a verse form in the following passage, which may in fact be considered an epitome of the whole of his ontology.

Returning is how the Tao moves
And being weak is how the Tao works
The ten thousands things under heaven
Are born from Being
And Being is from Non-Being

Tthis verse refer to two different meaning or aspects of returning:

1. The first aspects is suggested by the first line of the verse.
2. The second is suggested by the second line of the verse.

The first line:

‘Returning is how the Tao moves’ -- Everythings that exists
contains in itself a possibility or natural tendency to return, i. e.
to be transform into its opposite.

The second line:

‘And being weak is how the Tao works’ -- the same possibility
of ‘returning’ to the opposites, namely, the original state from
which it has come.

ALL THINGS, ON THE DEEPER LEVEL OF REALITY, ARE
‘ESSENCE’ LESS.

In this contex – the world itself is chaotic.

This is not only true of the external world in which we exist. But it is equally true of the world within us, the internal world of concepts of judgments.

All things are constantly in the process of a circular movement
(tung).

Tung is a dynamic aspects of reality
It is the rule of the ontological movement of everythings in the
world.

True man (t’en ni or t’ien chin) is the one who understand the meaning of the ‘Tung’ as the rule of of the ontological movement of everythings in the world.

The meaning of third and four line of the quoted verse:

‘Ten thousand things under Heaven/ Are born from Being’

All things in the world come into actual being from the Tao
at its stage of existence which is nothing other than
a stage in the process of self-manifestation of the Tao.
Tao = Being. Tao itself is comes into being from the stage
Of ‘non-existence’ (Non –Being).

The stage of non-existence is the abysmal depth of the
absolutely unknown-unknowable Way itself.

Compare with the concepts of Nirvana in Buddhism and
al-`alam al-Hahut in the Sufism of Ibn `Arabi.

Chuang Tze:

The real Reality is the One which comprehends all these opposites in itself, that the divisions of this original One into ‘life’ and ‘death’, ‘good’ and ‘bad’ etc., is due to various points of view taken by man.

The real Reality is the absolute One.
It is, of course, the Way (Tao) which pervades the world world
of Being., rather it is the whole world of Being.

Tao Te Ching IV:

Tao is all-pervading
And its use inexhaustible!
Fathomless
Like the fountain head of all things.

Wisdom:

Thirty spokes unite-around the nave;
From their ‘not-being’ (losing of their individuality)
Arises the utility of the wheel.
Mould clay into a vessel;
From its not-being (in the vessel’s hollow)
Arises the utility of the vessel.
Cut out the doors and windows in the house (-wall)
From their not-being (empty space)
Arises the utility of the house
Therefore by the existence of things we profit
And by the non-existence of things we are served.

1. (TTC XI – The Utility of Not Being)

Chuang Tze:

“If we want to affirm (Being on a higher level) what both parties regard as ‘wrong’, and to deny what they regard as ‘right’, we have no better means than ‘illumination’ (ming).

2. THE EGO AND THE MIND

According Chuang Tze:

Ordinary man believes that he himself has an ‘ego’, a self-subsistent entity in endowd with an absolute ontological independence.
He tends to forget that the ‘ego’ which he believes to indepencence and absolute is in reality something relative and dependence.
Relative to what? Relative to you and them and all other things that exist around himself.

For an ordinary man, ego is the very basis and the core of man’s existence without which he would lose his personality, his personal unity, and be nothing.
The ‘ego’ is the point of coordination, the point of synthesis, of which all the disparate elements of his personality, whether physical or mental become united. The ‘ego’ thus understood is called ‘the mind’ (Hsin).

The Nature of Hsin:

a. Tso-ch’ih, literally mean ‘sitting-galloping’
b. Tso-wang, literally mean ‘sitting-forgetting’

Tso-ch`ih refer to the situation in which the mind of an ordinary person finds itself, in constant movement, going this was at this moment and that way at the next, in response to the myriad impressions coming from outside to attract its attention and to rouse its curiously, never ceasing, to stop and rest for a moment, even when the body is quietly seated.
It is the exact opposite of the mind in a state of calm peaceful consentration.

TAO TE CHING XLVII (Pursuit of Knowledge)

Without stepping outside one’s doors,
One can know what is happening in the world,
Without looking out of one’s windows
One can see the Tao of Heaven

The farther one pursue knowledge,
The less one knows.
Therefore the Sage knows without running about,
Understands without seeing,
Accomplishes without doing

It is easy to understand conceptually this opposite of the two states of mind, one ‘galloping around’ and the other ‘sitting still and void’. But is is difficult for ordinary men to free themselves the latter.

The tyranny of the mind is nothing else than the tyranny of the ‘ego’, that is is the false ego. The false ego creates for himself as the ontological center of his personality.

Chuang Tze called it shih hsin or making the mind one’s own teacher.

Ego is man own creation. But man clings to it, as if it never can imagine himself existing without it.

In the intelectual level this ‘mind’ (hsin) appear as Reason, the faculty of discursive thinking and reasoning.

Chuang Tze calls the ‘reason’ as ch’eng hsin or ‘finished mind’. With it man tends to discriminates between things and passed judgments on them, saying, ‘this is right’ and ‘that is wrong’, etc. So then he goes on falling ever deeper into the limitless swamp of absurdities.

Lao Tze calls it as ch’ang hsin or constant or unchangeable mind. He designates it as a rigidly fixed state of the mind deprived of all natural flexibility , as he likes to say, the state of mind which perceives everywhere ‘good’ and ‘bad’ and regards these categories as something objective and absolute.

The kind of ‘knowing; which is wrong in the view of Lao Tze is the same distingushing and discriminating activity of intelligence as one which have seen so bitterly denounced by Chuang Tze.

The problem of ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ is not a logical problem. It is a matter of practical evaluation. This evaluation directly connected with the concrete facts of life. It is wrong and detrimental ti human existence because it tempts it away from its real nature, and ultimately from Tao itself.

The ‘knowing’, when its usual tendency of turning toward the outside and seeking after external objects is curbed and brought back toward the inside, transforms itself into the highest form of intuition. Illumination (ming).

TTC XXXIII

He who knows other is learned;
He who knows himself is wise.
He who conquers others has power of muscles;
He who conquers himself is strong.
He who is contenced is rich.
He who is determined has strength of will.
He who does not lose his center endures,
He who dies yet (his power) remains has long life.

Illumination is directly connected with man’s knwoledge of himself. It is evidently refers to the immediate and intuitive knowledge of the Tao.

It is described as man’s ‘self-knowledge’ or ‘self-knowing’ because the immediate intuitive grasp of the Way is only obtainable throught man’s turning into himself.

Remember the line, “Tao is all-pervading, and its use is inexhaustible! Fathomless! Like the fountain head of all things.” (TTC IV)

TTC XXXIV

The Great Tao flows everywhere
(Like a flood) it may go left or right.
The myriad things derive their life from it.
And it does not deny them.
...

Being the home of all things, yet claiming not,
It may be considered great.
Because to the end it does not claim greatness,
Its greatness is achieved.

THE INTUITIVE KNOWLEDGE OF THE TAO

The immediate intuitive grasp of Tao (the Way) is only obstainable through man’s ‘turning into himself’.
Only man alone in the whole world of Being is self-conscious, and man alone is in position to grasp the Way from inside.
At least in the first subjective personal encounter with the Way must be made within himself. That is by comtemplation and meditation.
But the existential core of himself which he finds in the depth of his mind may not be the Way per se, because after all it is an individualized the Way. But on other hand, there is no real distinction between the two.
Lao Tze expresses this state of affairs symbolically by calling the Way per se the Mother, and the Way in indvidualized form the Child.

TTC LII

There was a beginning of the universe
Which may regarded as the Mother of Universe
From the Mother, we may know her sons,
After knowing the sons, keep the Mother.
Thus one’s whole life may be preserved from harm.

Stop its apertures
Close its doors
And one’s whole life is without toil.

Open its apertures,
Be busy about it affairs,
And one’s whole life is beyond redemption.

He who can see the small is clear sighted;
He who stays by gentility is strong
Use the light (illumination)
And return to clear sightedness –
Thus cause not yourself late distress
-- This is to steal the Absolute.

Lao Tze uses metaphor ‘close its door’ to know the form of the individualized Tao (Child or Son).
Man can come to know the Child, and through the Child, he knows the Mother. And the ultimate state thus attained is referred to by the term ‘illumination’ (ming).

The child (tzu) represents an indvidualized duplicate of the Mother (mu), and the Mother is nothing other than virtue (te), or perharps an individual embodiment of the Way as its existensial core of the creative and vital force, which is the Way itself as distributed among ‘the ten thousands of things’.

‘Stop its aperture, close its doors’ means stopping the functioning of all organs of sense perception in the first place, and then purifying the Mind of physical and material desires.

TTC XII

The five colors blind the eyes of man;
The five musical notes deafen the ears of man;
The five flavors dull the taste of man;
Horse-racing, hunting and chasing madden the minds of
man;
Rare, valuable goods keep their owners awake at night.

Therefore the Sage;
Provides for the belly and not for the eye;
Hence, he rejects the one and accepts the other.

SPIRITUAL VALUES IN TAOISM

Taoist mystics, who looked aloof at everything here, felt some fatigue in worldly affairs and sought spiritual quiessence and tranquility, and then, withdrawing their minds from worldly things, were men who had a transcendent mentality.
They taught people to live a way of life which is neither driven by instinctive desires nor moitivated by calculation, forgetting worldly benefits. So, their value of their ideal life is quite beyond the category of the satisfaction of natural desires and utilitarian value.
(1) This ideal of life has its positive side; (2) This positive value
of life can be realized by living in a negative way.
First, if our ordinary way of living is considered of no value or of disvalue, then not living in this way is a positive value. For axample, if the toil of the whole day is considered to be disvalue, is not rest itself a positive value? The important thing is that the negating of disvalue should be presented to the spiritual subject. If this negating of disvalue is presented to a spiritual subject, the value of the negating itself s positively presented to the spiritual subject, immanently exist in the subject, and becomes positive spiritual values.
This ideal spiritual life, corresponding to the metaphysical vision, is identified in oir mind or spirit with the Nothing and is free from all limitations of finite particular worldly things.
Second, in Lao Tze’s teaching, the mind, which is identified with Nothing and is as broad as Heaven or the Void may simply contemplate the ‘coming and going’, ‘birth and death’ and ‘prosperity and decay’ of all things without affection or mercy. It is the mind of a spectator of the universe.
Third, the mind, which knows that what is prosperous shall decay, that what is strong shall become weak, can generalize all these into a principle: Everything moves in a curve which represents the natural law of all things. According to this principle, when a thing reaches the top of the curve it is destined to fall. Therefore, if we do not want to be a victim of this natural law, the only way is never to progress to the top of the curve.

TAO AS THE SUPREME CATEGORY

Ontologically: Tao is the infinite ontic substance which was multifariously characteruized by Lao Tze as:
- as fathomless unity of all being, prior in existene
- as the fundamental root of Heaven and Earth, infinite in nature, invisible in shape, but really great in function because all creatures are begotten from it
- as the primordial One ingression into all forms of beings
- as the unique pattern of all kinds of activities, discursive but wholesome
- as the Great Form. Whereinall creatures are embraced, free of harm, and full of peace

- as the final destiny where to all creatures, after emptyng out every kind of ‘quixotic’ anergetic activities in the course of life, will return for the ease and peace of rest conceived under the form of aternity and achieved in spirit of immortality.

Cosmogenetically: the infinitely great Tao is the all pervasive function with inexhaustible store of powerful energy exerting itself in two ways:

- The Tao is the primordial begetter of all things
- The suplied energy, within the bounds of Being, may be spent and exhausted through dispersion and waste.

Phenomenologically: the atttributes of Tao can be classified under two headings, namely, natural attributes and arbitrary attributes. The natural attributes are discerned as so many properties inherent in the Tao conceived under the form of eternity.

They may be enumerated as follows:

- integrity of Tao revealing itself as substance in the realm of Nothingness and as function in the realm of Being;
- Conformation of non action in which nothing is left undone
- The primordial incentive in the begetting of all things with no claim of origination
- Accomplishment of work on the cosmic scale with detachment;
- Sustenance of all things without domination
- Creation without possesion
- Energizing activity with no egocentric claim of merit

Characterologically, the supreme excellences , manifested as tha naturall attributes, originally pertain to the nature of Tao but will come in ingress into integrity of the sage, who is really the exemplar of the Tao in this world. Tha sage, as an ideal man, has trancended all limitations and weakness by reason of his exalted spirit.

TAOISM OR CHINESE MYSTICISM: INTRODUCTION

2007-08-29T20:47:00.000-07:00

Dr. Abdul Hadi W. M.

Taoism or sometimes written as Daoism is the English name for:

(1) A Philosophical school based on the texts the Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing ascribed to Lao Tze (Lao Zi) and Book of Chuang Tze (Zhuang Zi);

(2) A family of organised Chinese religious movements such as the Cheng I (Zheng Yi , means Orthodoxy) or Quan Zhen (‘complete reality) sects, which collectively trace bacj to Chang Tao-ling (Zhang Daoling) in the late Han Dinasty (206 BC – 220 AD);

(3) A Chinese folk religion.

The English word ‘Taoism’ is used to translate the Chinese terms Tao Chiao and Tao Chia. The character Tao literally means ‘path’ or ‘way’, but in Chinese religion and philosophy has taken on more abstract meanings. The compound Tao Chiao refers to Taoism as a religion (i.e. people worshipping at altars); Tao Chia refers to the activity of scholars in their studies. It is what we mean Taoism as a system of philosophy or mysticism.

Much uncertainty exists over the meaning of Taoism. In some countries and contexts – for example the national Taoism organisations of China and Taiwan – the label has come to be aplied to the Chinese folk religion, which would otherwise not have a readily recognisable English name. However many, if not most, of its practitioners would not recognise ‘Taoisme’ as the nama of their religion. Moreover, the several forms of what we might call ‘elite’ or ‘organised’ Taoism often distinguish their ritual activities from those of te folk religion, which some professional Taoists (Tao Shi) tend to view as debased.
Chinese alchemy, astrology, cuisine, several Chinese martial arts, Chinese traditional medicine, fengshui, and many style chigong breath training disciplines have some relationship with Taoism.

History

Depending on on how it is defined, Taoism’s origin may be traced to the prehistoric Chinese religion; to the composition of the Tao Te Ching (fourth Century BC) ; or to the activity of Chiang Tao-ling (second Century AD). Alternatively , one could argue that Taoism as a religious identity only arose later, by way of contrast with the newly-arrived religion of Buddhism, or with the fourth Century AD codification of the Shang Ching and Ling Pao texts.

Warring States Period (403-322 BC)

The texts of the Tao Te Ching and Chuang Tze date back to this period. Scholars disagree as to which is earlier . Some parts of the book of Chuang Tze quote some parts of the Tao Te Ching. The name Lao Tze may have been assigned to tthe latter because Ssuma Chin’s assertion that a certain ‘Lao Tze’ (the Old Master) was a teacher of Kon Fu Tze (thus giving Taoism seniority over its ideological rival – Konfucianism).
Both texts are claimed by later Taoist religious moevements, who variously interpret them in line with their own beliefs. To what extent such readings accurately reflect their original meaning, is a point of controversy.

Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD)

By the early Han, Lao Tze came to be worshipped as a god – either in association with or conflated with the Yellow Emperor. A major text from this Huang Lao movement would be the Huai Nan-tze which interprets earlier Taoist teachings in light of the quest for immortality (including drugs, sexual practises, and breathing techniques).
Chang Tao-ling claimed to have begun receiving a new revelations from Lao Tze in 142 AD, and founded the Tian-shi (Celestial Master) sect around them. He performed spiritual healing, and collected dues of ‘five pecks of rice’) from his followers. Chang Tao-ling’s major message was that the world-order as his followers knew it would soon come to an end, and be succeded by an era of ‘Great Peace’ (Taiping). Their activities did hasten the downfall of the Han dynasty. The same could be said of their contemporaries and fellow Taoists, the Yellow Rurban sect. Chang’s grandson set up a theocratic state in what is now Szechuan province. Toda’s Cheng I sect claims continutiy with Chang Tao-ling.
Lao Tze received imperial recognition as divinity in 166 AD. The Yin & Yang and ‘five elements’ theories date from this time, but were not yet integrated into Taoism.
The name Tao Chia comes from the Han Dynasty. In Szuma Chien’s history (chapt. 63), it refers to immortals; in Liu Ching it refers to Lao Tze and Chuang Tze. Tao Chiao come to be aplied to the religious movements mentioned above. The earliest commentary on the Tao Te Ching is actually that of Heshang Kung (the Riverside Master), a religious Taoist.

Three Kingdoms Period (220-265 AD).

Hsuan Hsue (Dark Learning) school, including Wang Pi, focuses on the texts of Lao Tze and Chuang Tze (not the organised religion).

Six Dynaties (316-589 AD)

Taoist alchemist Ge Hong, also known as Pao Fu-tze (the Master Embracing Simplicity) was active in the third and fourth centuries AD and had great influence on later Taoism. Major scrioputures were produced during this time period, including the Shang Ching (Highest Purity) and Ling Pao (Sacred Treasure) scripture.
The Hua Hui-ching (Scripture of Conversion of Tartars) claimed that Lao Tze went to India, where he taught less advanced doctrines under the nama of Buddha. Buddhist found this claim objectionable, and emperors regularly condemned it.

T’ang Dynasty (618-907 AD)

Taoism gained official status in China during the T`ang dynasty, whose emperors claimed Lao Tze as their relative. However it was forced to compete with Confucianism and Buddhism, its major rivals, for patronage and rank. Emperor T`ang Kao Shung added the Tao Te Ching to the list of classics (ching) to be studied for the imperial examinations.

Sung Dynasty (960-1279 AD)

Several Sung Emperors, most notably Hui Zong, were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing its.
The Ch’uan Chen school of Taoism was founded during this period, and together with Cheng I Celestial Masters is one of the two mschools of Taoism that have survived to the present.
Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesised in the Neo-Confucian school. Which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes.

Yuan Dynasty (1279-1367 AD)

Nei Tan (Interior Alchemy) became a major emphasis of the Ch`uan Chen sect, whose practitioners followed a monastic model inspired by Buddhism. One of the its leaders, Chiu Chu-I became a teacher of Jenghis Khan. Before the end of the dynasty, the Celestial sect and Buddhism again gained preeminence.

Beliefs, Deities and Practices in Religious Taoism

Taoism is not a belief-centered religion, and there are no known Taoist creeds. At the same time, certain characteristic beliefs or assumptions can be identified. One of these is the existence of several classes of supernatural beings, who may enter into relations with human beings. Thses include gods, ghosts, and ancestral spirits. Gods are not invariably benevolent, but are generally on the side of righteousness. Ghosts are dangerous spirits of the departed who must be appeased through offerings, especially during the Chinese Ghost Festival. Ancestors are also spirits of the departed, but are disinguished from ghosts in that they boast (male-line) descendents who commemorate them through home rituals.
Folk Taoism fucuses on rituals of sacrifice; elite Taoism emphasises control over spirits through talisman or spirit-registers (fu), on the pricinple that posession of a spirits’s name confers power over that spirit.

Traditional Chinese religion is determinedly polytheistic. Its deities arranged into a heavenly civil service that mirrors the beuraucracy of imperial Cina. Deities may be promoted or demoted. Many are said to haveonce been virtuous humans.
All forms of Chinese traditional religion involve paipai -- bowing towards an altar, with a stick of incense in one’s hand. This may be done at home, or in a temple, or outdoors; by an ordinary person, or a professional – such as Tao shi. The alter may feature any number of deities or ancestral ablets. Paipai is usually done in a accordance with certain dates of the lunar/solar calendar.

Fortune-telling – including astrology, palmistry, phrenology, and divination – has long been considered a traditional Taoist pursuit. Mediumship is also widely encountered, like the other kind of shamanism’s religions.

Along with Buddhism and Confucianism, Taoism became the three of great religions of China. Other religions embraced by Chinese peoples is Islam, Christianity and Animism. With the end of the Ch`ing Dynasty inm 1911, state support for Taoism ended. Much of the Taoist heritage was destroyed during the next period of warlordism. After the Communist victory in 1949, religious freedom was severely restricted.
Taoism currently has about 20 millions followers, and is primarily centered in Taiwan.

Philosophical Taoism or Tao Chia

Mystical or Philosophical Taoism does not refer to an actual Taoist school or group of philosophers. Rather, it is a way of reading Taoist texts and interpreting them in philosophical terms.

Philosphical Taoism emphasises various themes found in the Tao Te Ching and the book of Chuang Tze such as nonaction (wu wei), emptiness, detachment, receptiness, spontaniety, the strength of softness or flexibility, the relativism of human values, and the search for a long life. The spirit in which such things are discussed tends to be mora playful than doctrinaire, in keeping with the tone of the texts themselves.

In Chinese Tao when used as a noun, it means ‘way’ or ‘path’, but when it is used as a verb, it means ‘tp utter’ or ‘to speak it out’.
On Deities. While a nummber of immortals or other mysterious fugures appear in the Chuang Tze, and to a lesser extent in the Tao Te Ching (chapter 6), these have generally not become the objects of cultic worship. Academic commentators on Taoism are rather more likely to focus on the divinity of the Tao itself, which might be fruitully compared to (and contrasted with) Western conceptions of God.

The fundamental form of activity among philosophical Toist seems to be the reading and writing of books. Taoist of this type tend to be civil servants, elderly retiress,or in modern times, university faculty. For many educated Chinese people, life was divided into a social aspecs, where Confucian doctrine prevailed, and a private life, with Taoist aspirations. Nightime, exile, or retoirement provided the opportunity to cultivate Taoism and reread Lao Tze and Chuang Tze’s books. They often dedicated this period of life to arts such as calligraphy, painting, and poetry, or personal researches into antiquities, medicine, folklore, and so on.

The Essence of Taoism

The essence of Taoism is ‘Tao’, means ‘the way’, who is not the ‘eternal Tao’ (not God); he is the way, the truth, and the life. Tao (pronounced ‘Dow’) is basically indefinable. It has to be experienced. It refers to a power which envelopes, surrounds and flows through all things, living and non-living, in heaven and earth, and he wants to live in your heart. The Tao regulates natural processes and nourishes balance in the Universe. It embodies the harmony of opposites (i. e. there would be no love without hate, no light without dark, no male without female).
In Taoism, Tao, is a force which flows through all life and the first cause of everything. The goal of everyone is to become one with tha Tao.
Tai Chi, a technique of exercise using slow deliberate movements, is used to balance the flow of energy or ‘chi’ within the body. People should develop virtue and seek compassion, moderation and humility. One should plan any action in advance and achieve it through minimal action.
Yin (darks side) and Yang (light side) symbolize pairs of opposites which are seen through the universe, such as good and evil, light and dark, male and female. The impact of human civilization upsets the balance of Yin and Yang. The problem is how to return to Balance between the Yin and the Yang.

Islamic College For Advanced Studies (ICAS)-Jakarta– PARAMADINA

Cleft Care

2007-08-27T21:43:00.000-07:00

Helping Children With Cleft Lip and Palate in Indonesia
by: Evy Indriani Vyati., DDS., OMFS

Have you ever seen a child with a cleft lip or cleft palate? It can happen to anyone although the reason is more complex. These children will never eat or speak properly, and many will go through their entire life without ever being able to smile, go to school, or even hold on a job.

The greatest tragedy is that all of these children are suffering not because they were born with a cleft, but because they were born poor. Too poor to pay for a simple procedure that can change their whole lives.Every year in Indonesia there are about 10000 babies born with this kind of anomalies. You can help give them a smile by giving them a hand and a piece of your heart. It is the most rewarding and satisfying feeling to know that you have helped in creating that brilliant smile that was hidden before. May God Bless You for your kindness

PROPOSAL FOR FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE FOR ACTIVITIES UNDERTAKEN BY THE FOUNDATIONFOR THE CARE OF CLEFT LIP AND CLEFT PALATE PATIENTS (YPPCBL)BANDUNG

I. BACKGROUND

The foundation for the Care of Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate patients (YPPCBL) is a non profit social organization that functions in the socio-medical area by providing surgeries, medical services and social rehabilitation for cleft lip and cleft palate patients. The aim is to reduce the physical and social problems that arise as a consequence of these handicaps. From year to year the number of patients who submitted requests for assistance from YPPCBL has increased steadily. From the time when the Foundation was established in 1979 to date, it helped more than seven thousand financially disadvantaged patients with cleft lip and cleft palate anomalies who could not afford to pay for treatment.

Our patients are in fact only a very small portion of the total number of people having these anomalies. There are still many families who are reluctant to bring family members with cleft lips and cleft palates for treatment because they feel that these handicaps are a reason for shame or because they do not know that such patients can be helped through surgery. Another factor is the unaffordable high cost of operations, especially now, when the cost of all medical treatments has risen substantially. Money is of course a big limiting factor for our activities.

Every month the YPPCBL office in Bandung receives between 30-35 direct requests from the parents of prospective patients. In addition we serve requests from outside the city of Bandung. We hope, your organization will be able to help us with funds so that we can continue our social efforts.

II. PURPOSE AND AIM

To provide services in the form of surgery and care for poor cleft lip and cleft palate patients we also help.

1. To overcome or at least reduce the side effects of cleft lip and cleft palate anomalies. (malnutrition, bronchitis, bronchio-pneumonia, ear infections and speech and mental disturbance).

2. To increase the self-confidence in patients and their families so that they can live a normal life.

III. YPPCBL’S WORK PROGRAM

Aside from surgeries, we provide :

1. Management of cleft lip and cleft palate patients (examination, pre-operation, nursing care, surgery and post operation nursing care)

2. Evaluation of post operation patients by the full (multi-disciplinary) medical team.

3. Speech therapy for patients with speech difficulties.

4. Dental health services.

5. The activation’s of learning groups for kindergarten age children for the purpose of teaching them how to recognize objects, people and the world around them and to assist these children in the development of their hearing, speech, movements, learning capabilities and behavior.

IV. TARGET GROUPS

Cleft lip and cleft palate patients’ age 3 month to 18 years, who cannot afford to pay for treatment. Cleft lip and cleft palate patients who have already undergone an operation but who need further corrective surgery to improve their speech function and appearance.

V. INSTITUTIONS THAT PROVIDE SUPPORT

§ The foundation for the care of cleft lip and cleft palate patients (YPPCBL)

§ The faculty of Dentistry, Padjajaran University, Bandung

§ “Dr. Hasan Sadikin” Hospital, Bandung

§ St. Borromeus Hospital, Bandung

§ Immanuel Hospital, Bandung

§ “Dr. Salamun” Air Force Hospital, Bandung

§ Kebonjati Hospital, Bandung

§ Cengkareng Hospital, JAKARTA

§ District level Hospitals throughout out West Java

§ The Provincial Office of the Department of Social Affairs, West Java

§ The Provincial Health Service for West Java

§ The West Java Health Service at the District level

§ The Indonesian Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons Association

§ Private donors and private and government agencies.

VI. SOURCES OF FUNDS

It is in this connection that we are presenting this proposal for financial assistance to prospective government and private donors, both as groups and as individuals, as your good selves.

We hope that your help will be forthcoming. Needy cleft lip and cleft palate patients are anxiously awaiting your generosity.

VII. CONCLUSION

The proposal that we have put forward here in has been prepared in accordance with our plans and hopes. We trust that the concept of undertaking a humanitarian activity will yield good and beneficial results. How wonderful would it be if in this life we could do a good deed of some kind for our fellow human being, who needs someone to extend a helping hand. We will not just donate money but we will restore the dignity and social capability of a fellow human being.

We are convinced that with help and concern shown by all parties, this activity will continue to run smoothly and to yield benefits not only for patients and their families but also for those who show generosity. For all donations and for the support of all donors, we wish to express our sincere thanks. We hope and pray that Almighty God will grant His blessing and favor to all of us and to the success of our activities

If you ned further information, please contact :

YPPCBL

jl. Sekeloa Selatan no 1

Bandung-Indonesia

Phone : 62-22-2533081

or email : yppcbl@elga.net.id

Muslim Africans: A Past of Which to Speak

2007-08-27T05:46:00.000-07:00

An area of history, which still remains in the shadows of today's ingrained and accepted tale of Western dominance is the history of Muslim Africans. The tribulations and triumphs of Muslim Africans translates into a rich and vibrant history, a past of honour and a future of hope. From their explorative voyages in early centuries, their cultural assimilation under the scourge of slavery in the United States and the Caribbean, to their triumphs as re-defined citizens in today's world, Muslim Africans-today African Americans, African Canadians, and Caribbean's-have a past of which to speak.

Early Explorations

Christopher Columbus-the infamous Spanish explorer-is credited with "discovering" North America. Of course, 'discover' implies that the land Columbus landed on in 1492 had never been explored before, was devoid of any civilization and the people devoid of any sophistication. This is simply not true.

Before Columbus even stepped onto his boat, Native Americans had 2000 separate languages, a distinctive array of religions, a system of interaction with nature and other human beings and by 1492, the entire northern third of North America was already occupied, and hence already "discovered" by hunters.

The notion that Columbus, if not the first person to discover America, was the first person to make contact with Native peoples, is another common myth. There is extensive and irrefutable evidence that points to the idea that ancient North American culture had been in contact with voyagers from both sides of the Atlantic Ocean before Columbus. They spread knowledge amongst each other, influenced each other and exchanged products. Although more research is needed, evidence such as sculptures, oral history, eye-witness accounts, Arabic documents, coins and inscriptions serve as undeniable claims to North African Muslim contact with Natives in the Americas as early as the 7th century CE. This remains a hidden and often neglected part of history that needs further research and clarification but definitely points at undeniable possibilities.

Mandinka voyages-Muslim explorers and merchants from the West African Islamic Empire of Mali-were significant and extravagant. In 1324 CE, the ruler of Mali, Mansa Musa was en route to Makkah when he informed the Governor of Cairo that his predecessor had taken two voyages into the Atlantic Ocean to discover what lay beyond. Shihab ad-Din al-'Umari, an Arab geographer, reported from his informant that the Mandinka monarch's voyages reached at least the North Equatorial or the Antilles current which from the West African coast would lead straight to the Americas. Dr. Abdullah Hakim Quick in his book, Deeper Roots importantly relates that, "examination of inscriptions found in Brazil, Peru, and the United States, as well as linguistic, cultural and archaeological find offer documentary evidence of the presence of these Mandinka Muslims in the early Americas. "There is even extensive evidence of Mandinka cities of stone and mortar that were seen by early Spanish explorers and land pirates. A document written by a land pirate from Minas Gerais in 1754 relates the remains of a city near a river in Minas Gerais had remarkable buildings, obelisks and statues. Columbus, quite obviously arrived in the Americas a little late, but just in time to rake in the credit.

Slavery and Exploitation

It seems almost unbelievable that a culture and heritage full of such vibrancy and power remains hidden in the dust and shadows of other histories that are commendable, yet easily refutable. Perhaps, as the sixteenth century rolled in and brought the scourge of exploitation and the plague of slavery with it, the greatness of African empires was slowly forgotten-or perhaps just brushed aside.

When the Spanish crown granted the right to buy slaves in Africa early in the sixteenth century, the stage was set for centuries of exploitation. Millions of Africans were taken from the shores of West and Central Africa and transported to the Americas and the Caribbean where they were forced to spend their lives slaving for others. Early in the 17th Century there was a rapid growth of sugar plantations, which resulted in an increased demand for slaves, which in turn transformed Africa into what Dr. Abdullah Hakim Quick calls the "chief victim of exploitation". What many Muslims, whether they have an African heritage or not, and what many African-Americans and African-Canadians-whether or not they're Muslim-fail to realize is that seven to thirty percent of slaves taken from Africa and brought to the Americas, were Muslim.

The Five Pillars of Islam

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They are the framework of the Muslim life: faith, prayer, concern for the needy, self-purification, and the pilgrimage to Makkah for those who are able.

1) FAITH

There is no god worthy of worship except God and Muhammad is His messenger. This declaration of faith is called the Shahada, a simple formula which all the faithful pronounce. In Arabic, the first part is la ilaha illa Llah - 'there is no god except God'; ilaha (god) can refer to anything which we may be tempted to put in place of God - wealth, power, and the like. Then comes illa Llah: 'except God', the source of all Creation. The second part of the Shahada is Muhammadun rasulu'Llah: 'Muhammad is the messenger of God.' A message of guidance has come through a man like ourselves.

Shahada inscribed at Ottoman Topkapi Palace, Istanbul.

2) PRAYER (

Salat is the name for the obligatory prayers which are performed five times a day, and are a direct link between the worshipper and God. There is no hierarchical authority in Islam, and no priests, so the prayers are led by a learned person who knows the Quran, chosen by the congregation. These five prayers contain verses from the Quran, and are said in Arabic, the language of the Revelation, but personal supplication can be offered in one's own language.

Prayers are said at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset and nightfall, and thus determine the rhythm of the entire day. Although it is preferable to worship together in a mosque, a Muslim may pray almost anywhere, such as in fields, offices, factories and universities. Visitors to the Muslim world are struck by the centrality of prayers in daily life.

A translation of the Call to Prayer is:

God is most great. God is most great.
God is most great. God is most great.
I testify that there is no god except God.
I testify that there is no god except God.
I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God.
I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God.
Come to prayer! Come to prayer!
Come to success (in this life and the Hereafter)!
Come to success!
God is most great. God is most great.
There is no god except God.

New Mexico, U.S.A.
Prayer Call from Abiquiu Mosque.

Adhan

3) THE 'ZAKAT'

One of the most important principles of Islam is that all things belong to God, and that wealth is therefore held by human beings in trust. The word zakat means both 'purification' and 'growth'. Our possessions are purified by setting aside a proportion for those in need, and, like the pruning of plants, this cutting back balances and encourages new growth.

Each Muslim calculates his or her own zakat individually. For most purposes this involves the payment each year of two and a half percent of one's capital.


Zakat keeps the money flowing within a society, Cairo.

A pious person may also give as much as he or she pleases as sadaqa, and does so preferably in secret. Although this word can be translated as 'voluntary charity' it has a wider meaning. The Prophet said 'even meeting your brother with a cheerful face is charity.'

The Prophet said: 'Charity is a necessity for every Muslim. ' He was asked: 'What if a person has nothing?' The Prophet replied: 'He should work with his own hands for his benefit and then give something out of such earnings in charity.' The Companions asked: 'What if he is not able to work?' The Prophet said: 'He should help poor and needy persons.' The Companions further asked 'What if he cannot do even that?' The Prophet said 'He should urge others to do good.' The Companions said 'What if he lacks that also?' The Prophet said 'He should check himself from doing evil. That is also charity.'

4) THE FAST

Every year in the month of Ramadan, all Muslims fast from first light until sundown, abstaining from food, drink, and sexual relations. Those who are sick, elderly, or on a journey, and women who are pregnant or nursing are permitted to break the fast and make up an equal number of days later in the year. If they are physically unable to do this, they must feed a needy person for every day missed. Children begin to fast (and to observe the prayer) from puberty, although many start earlier.

Although the fast is most beneficial to the health, it is regarded principally as a method of self purification. By cutting oneself off from worldly comforts, even for a short time, a fasting person gains true sympathy with those who go hungry as well as growth in one's spiritual life.

5) PILGRIMAGE (HAJJ)

The annual pilgrimage to Makkah - the Hajj - is an obligation only for those who are physically and financially able to perform it. Nevertheless, about two million people go to Makkah each year from every corner of the globe providing a unique opportunity for those of different nations to meet one another. Although Makkah is always filled with visitors, the annual Hajj begins in the twelfth month of the Islamic year (which is lunar, not solar, so that Hajj and Ramadan fall sometimes in summer, sometimes in winter). Pilgrims wear special clothes: simple garments which strip away distinctions of class and culture, so that all stand equal before God.


Pilgrims praying at the mosque in Makkah.

The rites of the Hajj, which are of Abrahamic origin, include circling the Ka'ba seven times, and going seven times between the mountains of Safa and Marwa as did Hagar during her search for water. Then the pilgrims stand together on the wide plain of Arafa and join in prayers for God's forgiveness, in what is often thought of as a preview of the Last Judgment.

In previous centuries the Hajj was an arduous undertaking. Today, however, Saudi Arabia provides millions of people with water, modern transport, and the most up-to-date health facilities.


Pilgrim tents during Hajj.

The close of the Hajj is marked by a festival, the Eid al-Adha, which is celebrated with prayers and the exchange of gifts in Muslim communities everywhere. This, and the Eid al-Fitr, a feast-day commemorating the end of Ramadan, are the main festivals of the Muslim calendar.

HOW TO BECOME A MOSLEM?

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All praise be to Allah, the Lord of the universe. May peace and blessings of Allah be upon Mohammad, His last messenger.

The purpose of this hand-out is to correct a false idea spread among those willing to adopt Islam as their faith. Some people have a wrong notion that entering into the Islamic fold requires an announcement from the concerned person in the presence of high ranking scholars or shaikhs or reporting this act to courts of justice or other authorities. It is also thought that the act of accepting Islam, should, as a condition, have a certificate issued by the authorities, as evidence to that effect.

We wish to clarify that the whole matter is very easy and that none of these conditions or obligations are required. For Allah, Almighty, is above all comprehension and knows well the secrets of all hearts. Nevertheless, those who are going to adopt Islam as their religion are advised to register themselves as Muslims with the concerned governmental agency, as this procedure may facilitate for them many matters including the possibility of performing Hadj (Pilgrimage) and Umrah.

If anyone has a real desire to be a Muslim and has full conviction and strong belief that Islam is the true religion ordained by Allah for all human-beings, then, one should pronounce the "Shahada", the testimony of faith, without further delay. The Holy Qur'an is explicit on this regard as Allah states:

"The Religion in the sight of Allah is Islam." (Qur'an 3:19)

In another verse of the Holy Qur'an, Allah states:

"If unyone desires a religion other than Islam (Submission to Allah), Never will it be accepted of him; and in the Hereafter he will be in the ranks of those who have lost (their selves in the hell fire)."(Qur'an 3:85)

In addition, Islam is the only religion prevailing over all other religions. Allah states in the Holy Qur'an:

"To thee We sent the Scripture in truth, confirming the scripture that came before it, and guarding it in safety:..." (Qur'an 5:48)

Mohammad, the Prophet of Allah (Peace and blessing of Allah be upon him), said:

"The superstructure of Islam is raised on five (pillars): testifying that there is no God (none truely to be worshiped) but Allah, and that Mohammad is the messenger of Allah, performing the prayer, paying the Zakah (poor-due), fasting the month of Ramadan, and performing Hadj".

The Shahada can be declared as follows:

"ASH-HADU ANLA ELAHA ILLA-ALLAH WA ASH-HADU ANNA MOHAMMADAN RASUL-ALLAH".

The English translation is:

"I bear witness that there is no deity (none truely to be worshipped) but, Allah, and I bear witness that Mohammad is the messenger of Allah",

However, it would not be sufficient for anyone to only utter this testimony oraly either in private or in public; but rather, he should believe in it by heart with a firm conviction and unshakeable faith. If one is truly sincere and complies with the teachings of Islam in all his life, he will find himself a new born person.

This will move him to strive more and more to improve his character and draw nearer to perfection. The light of the living faith will fill his heart until he becomes the embodiment of that faith.

What would be next after declaring oneself a Muslim? One should then know the real concept underlying this testimony which means the Oneness of Allah and meet its requirements. One must behave accordingly, applying this true faith to every thing one speaks or does.

What do the words of the "Shahada" signify? The significant point which every Muslim must know very well is the truth that there is no God (deity) to be worshipped other than Allah. He - glory be to Him - is the only true God, Who alone deserves to be worshipped, since He is the Giver of life and Sustainer and Nourisher of mankind and all creation with His unlimited bounties. Man must worship Allah, Who alone is worthy of worship.

The second part of the Shahada (i.e., Wa ash-hadu anna Mohammadan rasul-Allah) means that Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) is the servant and chosen messenger of Allah. No one must have two opinions about this matter. In fact the Muslim has to obey the commands of the Prophet (PBUH), to believe him in what he has said, to practice his teachings, to avoid what he has forbidden, and to worship Allah alone according to the message revealed to him, for all the teachings of the Prophet were in fact revelations and inspirations conveyed to him by Allah.

What is the meaning of worship? It simply means rendering sincere service, showing reverence for Allah. In a deeper shade of meaning, it implies total submission and complete obedience to Allah's commandments both in utterances and actions of man whether explicit or implicit.

Worship fall into two categories:

Visible (manifest or outward)
Invisible (concealed or inward)

Visible worship includes acts such as uttering the two parts of the "Shahada", performing prayers, giving Zakah (the poor-due), recitation of the Holy Qur'an, supplication, adoring Allah by praising Him, purifying our bodies before prayers, etc.

This type of worship is associated with movement of the parts of the human body.

Invisible worship is to believe in Allah, in the Day of Judgement (in the Hereafter), in the Angels, in the Books of Allah, in the Prophets of Allah, in the Divine Decree of destiny (that good and bad are determined by Allah alone).

This type of worship does not involve movement of parts of the body but it surely has bearing on one's heart which subsequently affects one's way of life.

It should be borne in mind that any worship not dedicated to Allah alone will be rejected as one form of polytheism and this causes apostasy from the Islamic fold.

The next step for a newly revert to Islam is to purify himself by taking a complete bath. He should then resolve to comply with the principles and rules of Islam in their entirety. He should disown all forms of polytheism and false beliefs. He should reject evil and be righteous. Such rejection of evil and being righteous is one of the equisites of the motto of Islam - that is, Laa Ilaha Illallah.

Allah states in the Holy Qur'an:

"... whoever rejects evil and believes in Allah hath grasped the most trustworthy Hand-hold, that never breaks..." (Qur'an 2:256).

We have to consider that when we declare from our heart that "there is no god (deity) worthy to be worshipped but Allah", it implies on our part love, devotion, faith and obedience to the rules of Islamic legislations which are legally binding on all Muslims. It is a requirement of "there is no god worthy to be worshipped but Allah" to love for the sake of Allah and to reject for the sake of Allah.

This is the firmest anchor of belief which materialise the meaning of "AL WALA" and "AL BARA". It means that a Muslim should love and be loyal to his Muslim brothers. He should, as a practice, dissociate himself completely from the unbelievers and refuse to be influenced by them, both in worldly and religious matters.

We conclude with a humble prayer to Allah that may He cleanse the hearts and souls of those who are genuine seekers of truth and may He bless the community of believers. Aameen.

This is an ammended copy of "HOW TO BECOME A MUSLIM" originally prepared & published by Cooperative Office for Call and Guidance - Riyadh.

For more detailed information about Islam, please contact the office with the address given on the front page or the nearest Islamic center in your place