It could be true that Western civilization could not reach a peak of enlightenment without an acquaintance with early philosophy that was introduced by Muslim thinkers. Indeed, Islamic philosophy stimulated Western tradition to move from an intellectual darkness due to a superiority of the Church to the intellectual enlightenment in Medieval Ages. Nonetheless, some of Western scholars did not acknowledge Islamic philosophy as Islamic and have a significant role in terms of philosophical tradition by virtue of Islamic philosophy considered as Graeco-Alexandrian philosophy in Arabic form. Although their openness towards an advanced thought was much more induced by Islamic philosophy, but some notions should be clarified. Therefore, it is necessary to pose some skeptical questions: what is Islamic philosophy? Can a philosophy be Islamic? What are salient features proved such Islamic character?
In the first place, prior to a deeper discussion on the philosophy of Islam, it would be better to clarify first the definition of philosophy. It is grammatically widely known that philosophy word taken from Greek’ term, that is philos (love) and sophos (wisdom). In English word, it equals to “love of wisdom.” Unfortunately, there is no single agreement of terminological definition although the characteristics of philosophy are obviously grasped. Some would say that philosophy is a science that addresses the general states of existence. Seyyed Hossein Nasr listed some definitions; one of those is knowledge of all existing things qua existents. Above all, philosophy in my view aims to disclose a deepest and a clearest conceptualization of the existents through intellectual or spiritual activity in order to reach the truth or the wisdom. It could be carried out by acquired knowledge (al-`ilm al-hushuly), which resulted from intellectual inquiry, or knowledge by presence (al-`ilm al-hudhury), which produced by spiritual activity.
In addition, the philosophy is Islamic not only by virtue of the facts that was developed in Arabic world and by Muslims but also Islamic teachings and principles are sources and inspirations of the philosophy. It is obvious that Islam as religion, teachings, and its adherents contributes significantly to the development of philosophy. For example, Ibn Sina who has been very influential and often quoted philosopher until this contemporary era would go to a mosque and pray when confronted with a difficult problem. Similarly, Ibnu Rushd was not only concentrating on the philosophical activity during his life, but also he was an embodiment of the authority of Islamic law as the chief judge (qadi) of Cordova.
Moreover, Islamic philosophy introduces several valuable notions in a development of philosophy. In terms of ontology, the hierarchy of existence was grasped differently from that of contemporary ‘Western philosophy’. As well as ontology, the methods and the sources of acquiring knowledge in the light of epistemology were also not equal to those coming from ‘the West’. In the following points (third point), I elucidate the concept of epistemology and ontology in Islamic philosophy clearly.
Secondly, it is basis of epistemology and ontology in Islamic philosophy. Grasping epistemology and ontology is imperative since both are foundations in which Islamic elements appear. To start with, I will begin from notion of epistemology in Islamic tradition, then concept of ontology later.
Epistemology, as a science which discusses human knowledge and the evaluation of its types and the criteria of their validity, at least embrace four basic principals; sources of knowledge, limits of knowledge, methods of knowledge, validity of knowledge. According to Muttahari, there are five sources of knowledge, namely: empirical nature, rational realms, imaginative world, spiritual world, and history. Some Muslim thinkers add sacred text in this category. To acquire each of those sources, human needs five tools by which he can reach the sources, that is; senses, reason, imagination (mutakhayyilah), intuition (qalb), and historical science.
However, knowledge is also limited by its own limitation. It might be widely known that knowledge is very powerful but in some extents it has obstacles since can not reach the knowledge of Dzat al_Wujud. Furthermore, reason as a tool of obtaining knowledge incapable to deal with moral as imperative category and imagination also can not acquire spiritual world. Nevertheless, this condition does not hamper human being to attain knowledge in a broader sense. They could acquire objects of knowledge through several methods; ranging from observation (experiment/tajribi) for physical world, logical world (burhany) for non-physical objects, and intuitive world (irfany) for non-physical objects by direct. Then, to assess results of the methods application whether produces a valid organized knowledge or not, it is necessary to know measurements of knowledge validity. At least there are three criteria of validity, those are: coherence (logically), correspondence (with empirical facts), and pragmatically in terms of its instrumental function.
The following concept is ontology in Islamic philosophy. It is very distinctive for several unique conceptions introduced by Muslim philosophers. In the first place, it is theory of emanation. Mehdi Ha`iri Yazdi called it the theory of hierarchy of beings (existence). Differ from the concept of absorption which is defined as the ascendance movement of light to the First Principle, conversely, emanation is the descending movement from the First Principle to the next principles. In addition, according to Ibn Shina, emanation is that by which one existence is issued from another, and is dependent on the other without intermediation with matter, instrument, and time.
Secondly, it is the concept of Cosmology. In early historical accounts of cosmology, the word of ‘cosmology’ was defined as a branch of metaphysic which embraces material nature in its general aspects. In addition, Ibn Khaldun cited that cosmology is not only physical entities, because it was originated from spiritual entities. Therefore cosmology is the world view that endeavors to search the origin and the composition of the objects which originally emerge from the spiritual entity.
Thirdly, there are two notions of existence, namely, hierarchy of existence and structure (division) of existence. To start with, the stages of existence were elucidated by Al-Farabi. For him, there are four levels of beings; firstly, God as a prima cause, secondly, Angels as immaterial beings, thirdly, The Celestial World which consists of a wide range of sky’s objects, fourthly, the Terrestrial World which embraces earthly objects. The other Islamic philosopher, namely Pahlawi, makes an incredible notion of the hierarchy of existence, those are: a). Existence as negatively conditioned. It is also perveived as an eternal self-concealing God. b). Existence as non-conditioned in which reflects the self revealing of God, the unfolded existence, and the pure luminous radiation from source of God. c). Existence as “conditioned by something”. This is called as particular existence in which quiddity or actualized of unfolded existence and intrinsic manifestation of the unitary reality of “existence” is available.
Subsequently, as Toshihiko Izutsu noted that the existence was divided into four divisions: firstly, the absolute existence (self-evident being). It is the primary concept of existence. Secondly, determined existence in which the existence is determined by quiddity. Thirdly, General Unit; it is all external existential realities considered in their original state of unity. Ibnu Arabi names this existence as self manifesting of the Absolute. Fourthly, Particular Unit; it is a concrete external actualized in the world of external realities.
Thirdly, the history of Islamic philosophy would drive us to sink into the past and to reconstruct the richness of its wisdoms, not to just glorify the past in the sake of self-pride and luxury. In terms of searching of those wisdoms, it is necessary however, to understand some influential school thoughts and its outstanding proponents.
In the early period of Islamic philosophy, Peripatetic Philosophy (901-1037 M) was well known. The most prominent figures of the philosophy are Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi and Ibnu Sina. Indeed, they are founders of Islamic philosophy in its first emergence due to their acquaintance with Platonic and Aristotelian tradition. To strengthen their conviction and commitment on religious truth, they tried to harness Aristotelian's logic and neo-platonic philosophy as scientific explanations. In fact, the notion of emanation of Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina is very influential towards following philosophers. Some maintains that subsequent philosophers were just footnotes of peripatetic philosophy, especially of Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina.
In the second wave of Islamic philosophy (1058-1111 M), the discourse was much more colored by philosophical theology, sort of mysticisms, and also criticism towards peripatetic philosophy. The most outstanding thinker in this era was Al-Ghazali. In his early stage of scholarship, he wrote Maqashid al-Falasifah (The aims of Philosophers). He did what peripatetic tradition tried to prove that the truth can be achieved through rational and logical inquiry. However, finally he did not satisfy with the philosophical investigations in acquiring true knowledge. His work, namely Tahafut al-Falasifah (The incoherence of philosophers), strongly criticizes and challenges claims of philosopher of the truth. For him, philosophers are unable to prove, from a theoretical point of view, the religious truth.
Afterwards, Ibnu Rushd (1126-1198) in the western land of Islam revived the spirit of peripatetic tradition by presenting critics on the opponents of peripatetic philosophy (Al-Ghazali) and writing several volumes on Aristotle works. The Tahafut el-Tahafut (Incoherence of incoherence) refuted points by point the objections of Al-Ghazali on philosophy. Ibnu Rushd endeavored to affirm the superiority of a religion based on revelation as opposed to reason linked to a purely rational religion (philosophy). It can be seen from his accounts, either in Tahafut el-Falasifah (Incoherence of incoherence) or Fashlul Maqal (Decisive Chapter).
It seems that philosophy after Ibnu Rushd was disappearing. But it was developing in other forms of philosophy. One of the most prolific philosophers after Ibn Rushd was Shihabuddin Suhrawardi (1154-1191 M). He introduced illumination school of thought. Illumination theory, however, based on the mystical enlightenment then expressed in rational explanation. Suhrawardi symbolized his conception by The Light. Differ from that of emanation theory, the light is illuminated rather than emanated from the source of light through certain gradation of light. The quality of light depends on what he called an intimacy toward the source of knowledge. Furthermore, this theory introduced a new epistemology, namely knowledge by presence (al-`ilm al-hudhuri al-ishraqi) instead of peripatetic epistemology, namely, knowledge by acquired knowledge (al-`ilm al-hushuli).
In the peak of the philosophical achievement was acquired by Shadruddin Syirazi (1571-1640) who synthesized all philosophical traditions prior to him under a title; al-hikmah al- muta`aliyah (transcendental philosophy). It is mainly based on the theory of four journeys concerning transcendent philosophy and also science of beings. In terms of being theory, he presented three ideas, those are: wahdat al-wujud (unity of being) which was epitomized by the rays of the sun in relation to the sun, tashkik al-wujud (gradation of being); the hierarchy of being occurs because of different degrees of intensity toward absolute being, and ashalat al-wujud (principality of existence) which emphasized the superiority of wujud (existence) over the mahiyyah (essence).
Fourthly, it is notion of practical philosophy (al-hikmah al-amaliyah). This kind of philosophy differs from theoretical philosophy (al-hikmah an-nazhariyyah) in terms that practical primarily deals with how the things ought to be while the theoretical concerns with the things as it is or the essence of everything. However, the basis of practical philosophy itself actually dwells in the theoretical philosophy. As Yamani employed, when the theoretical domain ends its task of searching the essence of something, then immediately the practical philosophy begins to work.
In addition, the practical philosophy was divided into three branches, that are; ethics (regarding individual), domestic economy (regarding the family), and politics (regarding the community). To make it more understandable, it is necessary to elucidate accounts of some of those practical branches, especially ethics and politics. It is due to both ethics and politics are closely related to a perfection of individual and society as a foundation of civilization.
In the beginning, the discussion of ethics rotates in the light of achieving perfection and happiness in individual level. The central issue of the ethics at the time is how to carry out an inquiry and to behave in order to become a good man.
Al-Farabi, who is also known as avid student of Plato and Aristotle, tries to combine his predecessors' thought. The nature of human good to him seemingly resides in both political and theoretical activity. In al-Madinah al-Fadhilah and as-Siyasah al-Madaniyyah, Al-Farabi attempts to draw a conclusion that human great happiness is part of rational soul which is separated from a body. It means that human felicity could be reached through closely connection with the active intellect (al-ittisal bil-aql al-fa`al). Apparently Al-Faraby prefers to the theoretical activity to attain a highest degree of happiness rather than that of political or practical philosophy. Because theoretical science was more likely guides him to a close relationship with the active intellect. At a glance it is seemingly true, but it is not.
In Tahsil as-Sa`adah, however, he insists that the isolation of theoretical philosophy from its engagement in society is imperfect philosophy. The true philosophy, in fact, firstly should possess a true insight of theoretical virtue. Subsequently it also should have an ability to actualize the insight in a practical context. Accordingly, human good would be represented by the quality of prophecy. It might be solely possessed by an enlightened political ruler (the prophet) who has capability of translating theory into practice.
Interestingly, Ibnu Bajah and Ibnu Thufail come with conversely understandings. As can be seen from their work, Tadbiir al-Mutawahhid's Ibnu Bajah and Hayy ibn Yaqzhan's Ibnu Thufail, the human good only takes place in philosophical (theoretical) activity alone. As a result, human happiness must be found in isolation instead of an engagement in imperfect society.
However, Ibnu Rushd disagrees with the idea of perfection through isolation. In his Commentary on Plato's Republic, he indeed insists that the best perfection of human being is to participate as philosopher in a society. It might be similar to Al-Farabi's notion of enlightened rulership which is a mark of prophecy. Ibnu Rushd goes further by grounding philosophy in the law. To him, it is only the law which can provide the grounds, the argument why philosopher should return to the cave. Because in achieving the human good or human perfection someone must return to the cave, meaning, involvement in society.
The second notion of practical philosophy is politics. There are many Muslim thinkers concerned political theory. Some of them based their thought on the assumption of equality of men. It renders to a specific theory of political authority. The important figure of proponents of this idea is Abu Bakar ar-Razi. For him, everyone has an opportunity and an ability to obtain knowledge on his own; therefore he has no need to an authority. However, to become a leader of people some one has to possess 'a divine power' and a kind of intuition of reason.
Nevertheless, the bulk of Islamic scholars assume men as imperfect, diverse, or unequal. Hence, people need to a perfect authority which can lead them to the right path, true knowledge, and happiness. This view was hold by philosophers range from Ibnu Muqaffa', Al-Kindi, Al-Balkhi, Qudamah ibn Ja`far, Abu Hatim Ar-Razi, Raghib al-Asfahani, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, Ibnu Bajah, to Ibnu Khaldun with certain of variations and different focuses. For example, philosophers like Al-Kindi and Ibnu Sina emphasize on the perfection of individual at first before bettering a society. Meanwhile Al-Balkhy and Al-Farabi outweigh the welfare of the community and the existence of a city to make an individual good. Above all, they believe in such quality of prophecy (khawass) as a standard of ideal leader which guides them to the happiness in this world and hereafter.
In conclusion, after viewing the real meaning, the historical accounts, the principal notions and examples of practical theories in Islamic philosophy, it is undoubtedly clear that philosophy in Islamic world is Islamic; not only because the thinkers are Muslims or it was developed in Arabic world but also Islamic teachings and principles are sources and inspirations of the philosophy. Subsequently, it could be a point of departure for Muslim societies to reconstruct the richness of wisdoms in their own heritages. Afterward, they would able to construct an advanced civilization rooted in both classical and contemporary thoughts and wisdoms in Islamic world.
