I. Introduction

The first phase of skepticism was revealed under the Pythagoras philosophy, which stated that there is no objective truth. The belief of religion was collapse; man searched for the truth by rely on their own logic, thus there was no truth outside human logic. Unfortunately, every man has his own understanding about the truth, further there were no absolute truth, the truth was depend on each man based on his own logic. Thus, truth was relative. There was no certainty. At that time came the survivor, the great philosopher, Socrates (470-399 BC). By his dialectics method, introducing that there is an objective truth. He tried to convince people to believe in religion as they used to be.

The second phase of skepticism, arose during the 10th-15th century, when philosophy was hegemonies by the Church authority. Philosophy as a science could not find its freedom to find the truth; the church authority limited its freedom only for a tool to legitimate of their Holy Book. All science should be based on the interpretation of the Holy Book, therefore if any science contrary or against the interpretation of the Holy Book, then the scientist or philosopher should be punished. It was ever happened to Copernicus and Galileo, whereas they asserted their ideas that it is earth which around the sun, and sun as the center of universe (heliocentric). In other words, the using of ratio is limited and undeveloped. It is absolutely clear such as in the Anselmus (1033-1109) philosophy. The typical of Middle age philosophy is known as in the famous word saying by Saint Anselmus, credo ut intelligam, means believing first then understanding. This type is absolutely different from rational philosophy, understanding first then believing or not believing.

This change in thoughts and beliefs and the toppling of the intellectual and philosophical foundation (of the Middle Ages) broad about psychological crises in many of the scholars, and raised doubts in their minds such as : How can we be sure that other beliefs we hold are not invalid, and that one day their invalidity will not become evident? How can we know that newly discovered scientific theories will not also be invalidated someday? Finally, a great scholars named Montaigne denied the value of science and knowledge and he explicitly wrote; how can we be sure that the theory of Copernicus will not be invalidated in the future? He once more expressed the doubts of the skeptics and the sophists in a new way, and defended skepticism, and thus another phase of skepticism appeared.

In the middle age, in Europe there was school of philosophy, the place where the only discussion taught in the church affiliated schools, and which came to be called scholastic philosophy, were these which could justify the dogmas of Christianity, dogmas which were not without deviation themselves. The dogmatic resistance of the Church and the ruthless behavior of the authorities of the Church with respect to the scientists brought about adverse reaction. The most important effort from skepticism and the revitalization of philosophy was Rene Descartes, the French philosopher who is called “The Father of The Modern Philosophy.”

The word Renaissance derived from The Renaissance, also known as " Rinascimento" (in Italian), was an influential cultural movement which brought about a period of scientific revolution and artistic transformation, at the dawn of modern European history. It marks the transitional period between the end of the Middle Ages and the start of the Modern Age. The Renaissance is usually considered to have originated in the 14th century in northern Italy and begun in the late 15th century in northern Europe.

The term Rebirth (Rinascenza), to indicate the flourishing of artistic and scientific activities starting in Italy in the 13th century, was first used by Italian historian Giorgio Vasari in the Vite, published in 1550. The term Renaissance is the French translation, used by French historian Jules Michelet, and expanded upon by Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt (both in the 1860s). Rebirth is used in two ways. First, it means rediscovery of ancient classical texts and learning and their applications in the arts and sciences. Second, it means that the results of these intellectual activities created a revitalization of European culture in general. Thus it is possible to speak of the Renaissance in two different but meaningful ways: A rebirth of classical learning and knowledge through the rediscovery of ancient texts, and also a rebirth of European culture in general. The following article is discussion about Descartes’ life and thought.

2. Discussion

2.1. Descartes’ life

Descartes was born in a village near Tours in France in 1596. He was educated at a Jesuit college which was firmly grounded in the scholastic tradition, and by no means adverse to the study of either the humanities, or science. At the school he was given privileges similar to those enjoyed by boys of noble birth, but on the grounds of his fragile health. Descartes studied a broad range of subjects, and excelled particularly in mathematics. It is clear he benefited greatly from this Jesuit education, yet Descartes (in common with many intellectuals of his time) was keen to stress the separation of reason and faith. This meant that he could be skeptical concerning the philosophical and theological positions taken by the Church, while maintaining his Catholic faith. After taking a degree in law from Poitier, Descartes enlisted in the Dutch and, later, the Bavarian militaries. By 1619, under the influence of the Dutch mathematician and scientist Beeckman, Descartes began his exceptionally fertile mathematical studies of natural phenomena. Also around 1619, Descartes may have begun the unfinished Rules for the Direction of the Mind which was his first major philosophical treatise on the proper method for pursuing either science or rational theology. Over the next decade, Descartes alternated spending time in Paris with the circle of mathematicians and physicists gathered around the figure of Father Mersenne, and travelling widely. In 1629 Descartes moved to Holland where he lived in seclusion for 20 years, only occasionally returning to France, and changing his residence frequently to preserve his privacy.

It was after he moved to Amsterdam that Descartes began working in earnest on the philosophical ideas upon which his fame now rests. The Discourse on the Method was published in 1637. And in 1640, he enlarged upon the metaphysical issues therein, writing his Meditations on First Philosophy. The full title of this work is Meditations on the First Philosophy: In Which the Existence of God and the Distinction Between Mind and Body are Demonstrated. The work was first published in 1641 in Latin and was translated into French in the following year by the Duc de Luynes. The Principles of Philosophy followed in 1644. He went to Sweden on the invitation of the Queen in 1649, and died a few months later of inflammation of the lungs.

2.2 Descartes’ Philosophy

Descartes’ philosophy’s background came from the uncertainty situation that time. Scholastic thought, did not know how to handle the positive science which revealed by some scientists and philosophers. Seeing those situation he was encouraged to get free from the trap of the traditional thought and found out another new way of thinking. The following article will elaborate Descartes’ philosophy, mainly related to his epistemology. Descartes’ epistemology will be divided into three main parts: the quest for certainty, the certainty of existence, and the argument for existence of the external world.

2.2.1 The Quest for Certainty

Descartes point is proposing such a catastrophic test was not just to introduce doubts about everything: “I did not imitate the Skeptics, who doubt only for the sake of doubting, and pretend that they are always uncertain. On the contrary, my purpose was only to obtain good ground for assurance for my self, and to reject the quicksand and mud so that I might find the rock or clay.” Descartes was seeking an absolutely certain basis for all knowledge. To find strong basis for his philosophy, he started to doubt anything. He doubts all senses perceptions, he doubt the existence of his own body. To doubt all those things are possible, because there are dreams, illusion, imagination that as if there are exist. When we are dreaming, we see by our eyes that we wear a cloth, sitting by the fire and seems that it is real, but when we wake up then we know that we are not wearing any cloth and are not sitting by the fire. Thus, who can guarantee that what we perceive by our senses really real or exist? There is a real exact thing that can not be deceived by our senses or even by ghost, it is really real or exact that now “ I doubt .“ This is became his basis of philosophy. his principle may be summarized in his famous proposition: “ I doubt, therefore I am “ or “ I think, therefore I am “ or in Latin “ Cogito Ergo Sum “ that is, if one follows the way of doubt regarding the existence of everything, one will nonetheless never be able to doubt one’s own existence. Since doubt is meaningless without one who doubts, the human existence of doubters and thinkers is also indubitable.

2.2.2 The Certainty of Existence

In this manner Descartes carried on his test in search of some information which would be indubitable and certain. If could find such knowledge, he could use it as starting point for justifying the entire structure of human knowledge. Descartes found exactly the kind of certainty: “ I think, therefore I am “ why am I so certain that “ I think, therefore I am “ is true? According to Descartes, the only feature of this statement which convinces me that it is true, is that I clearly and distinctly see or understand, what is being said. Clarity and distinctness, must be the marks of truth, the distinguishing characteristics by which you can tell the true from the false. Then, general rule can be formulated, “ Whatever is clearly and distinctly conceived is true. “

From doubting anything, he then came to one exact thing which is doubt itself. Doubt is the exact n exist thing, because nothing can deceive me who doubt. And the person who doubts must be also real and exist. So whoever doubt or think he must be real and exist. Finally he found that there is one truth, it is “ I doubt or think, therefore I am. “ “ I think, therefore I am “ is a clear and distinct proposition. We must warn against the fact that when Descartes began the demonstrative stage of his thought, he had not felt the need for accepting the syllogistic figures in logic. Rather, he believed that knowledge of his existence by way of his thought is an intuitive matter that does not require the construction of syllogistic figures and the acceptance of their minor and major premises. Since the proposition, “ I think, therefore I am “ is true because it is intuitive, such that it is not subject to doubt, anything of the same degree of intuitiveness is also true. With this, Descartes added another proposition, and admitted as true that a thing does not out of nothing. On Descartes official doctrines, ideas are innate insofar as their content derives from the nature of the mind alone, as opposed to deriving from sense experience. The innate ideas are:

2.2.3 The Argument For Existence of The External World

We can be certain of our own existence, of God and of God’s guarantee that whatever is clearly and distinctly conceived is true. Mathematics knowledge is true but only gives us truth about concepts in our mind. There is truth outside our mind: since the belief in an external world is a natural one, God would be deceiving us unless it were true. Since God cannot be a deceiver, there must be an external physical world. The properties that we can safely attribute to it are those which we find in our clear and distinct ideas of body- namely, geometrical and arithmetical truth. Another argument for external physical world is:

3. Conclusion

Descartes’ epistemology is based on rational foundation. By using his ratio he searched for the truth, the knowledge. According to him, thought as an activity of thinking is the objective reality, there is no deception by which thought is a truth. “I think, therefore I am” is a starting point for Descartes to find the truth. Clear and distinct those are the requirements of finding the truth or the existence of a thing. Through these requirements, Descartes found any other truth that he called it as: Innate ideas. Innate ideas are objective realities since we conceive those ideas by our ratio, meanwhile the existence of the external world as subjective reactions since it is acquiring our senses. Descartes emphasizes his thought merely on logic, due to the using of ratio at that time was tightly limited. Nevertheless, Descartes himself cannot separate from the atmosphere of religion thought. Rationality foundation that he built to find the truth did not make him as a slave of ratio and neglecting the existence of God. In contrary, he tried to harmonize religion and ratio. He thought clearly and distinctly that there is impossible all existences came from nothing, as his famous proposition: “ A thing does not come out from nothing.”

BIBLIOGRAPHY

• As Sadr, M. Baqir. Our Philosophy. Qum: Ansariyan Publications, 2000
• Graid, Edward (ed). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (vol 3 and 8). New York: Routledge, 1998
• Hopkin, Richard H., et al. Philosophy Made Simple. Great Britain, 1979
• Huemer, Michel (ed). Epistemology. London: Routledge, 2002
• Praja, Juhaya S. Aliran-aliran Filsafat dan Etika. Bogor: Kencana, 2003
  Yazdi, M. Taqi Misbah. Philosophical Instructions. New York: Binghamton University, 1999
• http//www.google.com

Istasadhya,

"Master Student of Islamic Philosophy- ICAS Jakarta"

Of the so-called natives of Indonesia, archaeologists have speculated that the first people to populate Indonesia migrated from mainland China some 1,000 years ago and inhabited a stretch of islands along the equator, later known as Nusantara.

Over the centuries they built and refined their statecraft in the form of kingdoms and principalities. Sharing similar characteristics with other Southeast Asian kingdoms, these Nusantara kingdoms based their conception of state more on people than on space or territory. But intercourse with the western world changed the course of history in Nusantara.

In 1511, the Portuguese conquered Malacca, located on the Malay peninsula, which was then still an inseparable part of Nusantara. The Dutch followed in 1512 and landed on Banten shore in Java. At first, the Dutch came more as traders under the trading umbrella of the Royal East Indies Company (Vereniging Oost Indische Compagnie, VOC). For the next two centuries, the Dutch conducted business with the natives, although in many cases the trade was not on equal terms. Often, trade was accompanied by violent pacification processes.

Then the VOC went bankrupt and the Dutch government took over the business in Nusantara (called the East Indies by the Dutch). Starting from about the mid-seventh century and lasting until the arrival of the Japanese in 1942, was the "real colonization" called "high colonialism" in literature. The period was disrupted briefly when the British took over colonial rule in 1811 to 1814. Among other things that the natives learned from colonization was statecraft based on territorial conception rather than on people.

In the early 20th century, the natives of Nusantara learned that as diverse as their ethnicities were, they could imagine themselves as a unified community. A nationalism had grown in a process that Benedict Anderson, a doyen of Indonesian studies, calls an "imagined community". During the first half of 20th century Nusantara, its people built an imaginary nation called Indonesia -- the name itself was borrowed from the West. By the end of the 1930s, it was clear that the end of Dutch colonialism in Indonesia was only a matter of time.

During World War II, 1942-1945, the Japanese occupied Indonesia. Although short-lived, the occupation enabled Indonesians to arm themselves for the very first time. Shortly after Japan's defeat in WWII, Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed Indonesia an independent state, and they became the founding fathers of the new country. The largest archipelago in the world, with over 17,000 islands -- only 3,000 of which are inhabited -- has emerged into a new Indonesia.

When the Dutch returned and tried to reestablish colonial rule, armed Indonesians resisted. The Dutch were forced to recognize an independent Indonesia in 1949.

The new Indonesia adopted a federal system of governance for a short time. But for a longer period, within a five-year span (1950-1955), leaders of the new country were eager to adopt a liberal system of government. Although there is no proof that the system ruined the economy, it was clear that the elite's political stability was shaky. The longest serving prime minister was only two years in office.

The government then held a general election in 1955, the first and only democratic general election Indonesia ever had. But feeling that the country was still unstable two years after the election, president Sukarno, backed by the Army, declared the 1950 Provisional Constitution void and reintroduced the 1945 Constitution. The latter provided an ample opportunity for Sukarno, popularly known as Bung Karno (Comrade Sukarno), to balance three political powers -- the Indonesian Communist Party, the Army and himself.

In the first half of the 1960s, Bung Karno leaned toward the left. On domestic politics, he was trying hard to balance the communists and the Army; on the international stage he was establishing himself as leader of a new world, free from Cold War antagonism. But economic decline and mounting conflicts, especially between communists and noncommunists, the latter of which was backed by the Army, caused him to lose control over the situation.

On Sept. 30, 1965, an abortive coup occurred. There are two conflicting versions of events surrounding the attempted coup. The official Army version insists that the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) was behind the coup attempt, while the communist version asserts that the coup was an internal matter of the Army. In fact, several members of PKI's central bureau were involved, as well as many Army officers and personnel.

The abortive coup cost Indonesia dearly. It took the lives of seven high-ranking Army generals, followed by a pogrom of communists -- a moderate estimate ranges between 300 thousand and 500 thousand alleged members of PKI. Soeharto, who then was a major general and commander of the Army Strategic Reserves Command, took over leadership and deposed Bung Karno from his presidential seat.

In 1966, Soeharto received a letter known as the March 11 Letter of Instruction which reportedly transferred state power from Sukarno to him.

In 1967, Soeharto unseated Sukarno as president in the special session of the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS).

Consolidating his power under a new regime called the New Order, Soeharto launched a "regime cleansing" against the Old Order.

Together with Hamengkubuwono IX, the sultan of Yogyakarta, and Adam Malik -- the three were known as the triumvirate -- Soeharto divided the tasks for economic and political reconstruction. Sultan Hamengkubuwono was assigned to lead efforts for economic recovery, Adam Malik was assigned to redirect Indonesia's foreign policy toward the West, and Soeharto himself was "assigned" to rebuild the lamentable domestic politics.

Soeharto was determined to change Indonesia's course, from its emphasis on politics to prioritizing economic development. He set up the trilogy of development: political stability, economic growth and equality.

To gain political legitimacy, perceived as a prerequisite to economic growth, the government conducted a general election in 1971. The election, however, was far from democratic. Soeharto introduced the "floating mass" concept that banned political parties from operating at village level.

From the 1971 election and throughout the New Order period, the Functional Group (Golongan Karya, or Golkar) served as Soeharto's main political machinery. Golkar legally operated not as a political party, although in fact it was a party. Golkar ran in the 1971 elections against 10 other political parties -- including PKI and Masyumi which were two of the four biggest parties in 1955 but which had been out of political scene -- and won 62 percent of the vote.

In 1974, Soeharto forced all political parties to merge into three: Golkar, the United Development Party (PPP) and the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI). Again, legally speaking Golkar was not a political party. Five more elections were conducted every five years. During those years, Soeharto tightly controlled politics; not even the slightest room was available for opposition.

There were several cases of serious opposition during the New Order regime. The first came rather as a blow in 1974, when students protested against Japanese investments. Added by political rivalry between Gen. Soemitro and Maj. Gen. Ali Moertopo, student protests in Jakarta turned into riots. The movement ended with the removal of Soemitro from his powerful position as deputy commander of the Armed Forces and chief of staff of the Operation Command for the Restoration of Security and Order (Kopkamtib).

The second serious opposition movement came in 1978. Again it came from students, who protested Soeharto's bid for a second term in office, which would be decided upon by the People's Consultative Assembly in its General Session in March 1978.

Several retired Army officers backed the students, while factionalism was apparent within the Armed Forces. Soeharto moved fast to crush the movement. Hundreds of opposition and student leaders were arrested, dozens of newspapers and magazines were closed down. The movement lost its momentum, and after that Soeharto enjoyed an incontestable position.

If Golkar served as Soeharto's main political machinery, the Army functioned as guardian of the state. And since the state was personalized around Soeharto alone, the Army also served to protect him. Under its dual function role doctrine -- the doctrine argues that the duties of a professional Indonesian Armed Forces includes attending to nonmilitary business, especially if it has to do with politics -- the military intervened in almost all sectors of public life. At its peak, the number of military personnel serving in nonmilitary affairs reached over 40,000. Later, history witnessed excesses of the doctrine.

Some businesspeople, many of whom were of Chinese descent, enjoyed state protection and sometimes two-digit economic growth; some grew to become tycoons and magnates. The privileges that these businesspeople enjoyed sparked resentment from other communities. As a result, racial tension grew.

But Chinese businesspeople were not the only ones to enjoy state protection and preference. Some indigenous businesspeople also enjoyed similar privileges. In general, what Kunio Yoshihara calls "ersatz capitalism", or pseudocapitalism, grew. Those "capitalists" were not real capitalists.

Then the financial crisis came. It first hit in mid-1997, and many believe it was a direct result of Thailand's economic crisis. The crisis worsen with the scheduling of the People's Consultative Assembly's General Session in March 1998, with the main agenda being to "elect" a "new" national leadership. It eventually turned into a political crisis too. But Soeharto was determined to run for his seventh consecutive five-year term in office. Supported by his political machine, Soeharto, as expected, became president again.

The economic and political crises made the political climate like a house of cards. Lacking sensitivity, Soeharto filled his new Cabinet with cronies, and appointed one of his daughters minister of social affairs. Less than two months after the formation of the new Cabinet, political tension mounted to an unbearable level. On May 12, four Trisakti University students were shot dead following a peaceful demonstration.

The shootings immediately sparked the emotions of the masses. To the majority of people, the New Order regime had become soulless. Within a week, Indonesia experienced one of its most tumultuous periods in history. For three days, from May 13 through to May 15, six of the country's largest cities were hit by massive riots, probably the largest riots in Indonesia's history. Days later, hundreds of thousand students and members of the public poured into the streets. Chanting and demanding total reform, thousands marched to the legislative building in Jakarta and occupied it for several days.

This forced Soeharto to step down. Instead of returning the presidential mandate to the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) he gave the mandate to vice president B.J. Habibie. The new president is weak, but his weakness is one of his strengths. Everyone close to him feels that they can use him, and thus balancing the power is everyone's interest. The government scheduled another general election on June 7, 1999, only two years after the last election.

Forty-eight political parties, instead of three, competed for 462 seats in the House of Representatives, with the remaining 38 seats going to the military. The election was the first democratic poll since 1965, and the results should have a long-term effect on domestic political stability. The Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI Perjuangan) won a majority in the House (DPR) with 35 percent of seats, followed by Golkar, the United Development Party (PPP), the National Awakening Party (PKB), the Crescent and Stars Party (PBB) and the National Mandate Party (PAN).

Despite its position as a simple majority party, PDI Perjuangan lost the political battle to install chairwoman Megawati Soekarnoputri as president. In a tight race against a strategic coalition of Golkar and the Axis Force, a coalition of various Islamic parties, PDI Perjuangan also lost the strategic posts of speakers of the House and People's Consultative Assembly. After losing out on the presidency, Megawati was elected as vice president.

Take From The Jakarta Post

Habib Bourguiba

“How should I know? Tell me!”, he said.

In 1961, Habib Bourguiba made a controversial statement claiming that fasting should not be observed for it reduces productivity. He then appeared on television with his cabinet, eating and drinking during Ramadhan.

“Why so harsh?”, Tan was shocked.

“I don’t know. Was it out of ignorance or arrogance? Perhaps a combination of both”, I replied.

Even though fasting is there in the name of Lent among Christians, it is always the Muslim’s version that cultivates questions and debates.

In order to understand about the real meaning of fasting, one should agree that it has something to do with our own paradigm and world view. The way we view things; like I always quote, “what you see is what you get”.

VIEWING FASTING IN MANY WAYS

If you see fasting as a way for better diet, you will benefit that from fasting. But fasting will only be a mechanism of improving your diet.

If you see fasting as a way to save your daily expense by breaking your fast daily in the mosque, then you will be able to achieve that. But that’s it. No more than that.

If you see fasting as a way for you to gain reward or ‘pahala’ from Him, then it is a good motive and sound intention. But reward and pahala is something that you can hardly measure in this physical and worldly life. You don’t see someone obese out of pahala. It is something else!

And strangely, the last 10 days of Ramadhan are the most rewarded and full of pahala, but then you’ll see the mosques are empty.

So, what Ramadhan and fasting are all about?

If you see fasting as abstaining one from eating, drinking, having sexual intercourse during the daytime, and reducing the wrongdoings of backbiting what so ever… that is the definition of fasting. But it only explains the mechanism of fasting as ritual.

Let us take a look at the origin of Muslims’s version of fasting. Al-Quran says:

Fasting is a mechanism to achieve Taqwa. You abstain yourself from eating and drinking, in order to achieve Taqwa. How is that?

TAQWA

Taqwa can be defined in many ways. But the conversation between Ubay bin Kaab and Umar al-Khattab was a good summary about the essence of Taqwa. Once, Umar asked Ubay what he knows about Taqwa. Ubay replied by asking him, “Have you walked through thorny path?”

Umar answered, “Yes, indeed”

Ubay then asked him, “What did you do?”

Umar replied, “I tucked up (my garment) and did my best (to avoid thorns)”

Thereupon Ubay said, “That is Taqwa!”

Our life is a journey. Like someone who is driving from a place to another. Throughout the journey, he will meet many road signs that might instruct him to do against his will. He wants to drive at full speed, but a sign says, “No, the limit is only 80km/h”.

He wants to arrive as early as possible but suddenly a red light instructs him to stop and let others move first.

Someone who is wise and on top of his rational thinking, would never ever see all the road signs as challenge to his right exercising his freedom. The truth is, the road signs are there to help him achieve safety throughout the journey until he reaches the destination.

The same thing applied to our big picture of this life. Do’s and don’ts of Islam are not the obstruction and challenge to the access of his freedom of choice. They come from the Creator who knows better what is good and what is bad in this life. They are there for our safety, peace and harmony.

Someone who has the quality of Taqwa will take his journey like someone who walks through thorny path. He is a person with a full of consciousness about what is good and what is bad around him. He must also have a good self control, like a person who is good in controlling his car steering.

This is the essence of fasting. You learn to exercise your self control.

SELF CONTROL

If someone does not take his lunch because there is nothing to eat, then it causes him tiredness and anger.

But a believer who chooses not to eat while he has everything to do so, for the sake of obeying his Lord, then he is exercising his ability to control himself against some of his desire.

You can eat, but you don’t eat. You can drink, but you learn not to drink, so that you can tell yourself that you are a proactive person. Not a reactive one.

A reactive person will get mad when something stimulates him to anger. He will be sad and out of control when something causes him sadness.

He has no ‘pause’ button. He has no ability to control himself to choose a better reaction. His actions are determined by things around him. He is not the one who controls himself. He is occupied by others. He is under the real occupation of others.

A Muslim is not an effective Muslim if he does not have a control over his own actions. He must be a proactive Muslim.

Return back you self control… you are the strongest!

Fasting makes us stronger, if we correct the way we view it.

Fasting is 30 days intensive training course for the 7 Habits of Highly Effective Muslim.

This article provides useful advice on how to avoid some common problems encountered in Ramadhan. The advice should enable one to fast comfortably and enjoy fully the spiritual benefits of Ramadhan.

During Ramadhan, our diet should not differ greatly from normal and should be as simple as possible. We should be able to maintain our normal weight, neither losing nor gaining. However, if one is over-weight, Ramadhan is an ideal time to lose weight.

We should aim to consume slow digesting foods including fiber-containing foods. Slow-digesting foods last up to 8 hours, while fast-digesting foods last only 3 to 4 hours.

Slow-digesting foods are foods that contain grains and seeds like barley, wheat, oats, semolina, beans, lentils, whole meal flour, etc. (complex carbohydrates).

Fast-burning foods are foods that contain sugar, white flour, etc. (refined carbohydrates).

Fibre-containing foods are bran-containing foods, whole wheat, grains, seeds, vegetables like green beans, peas, sem (papry), marrow, mealies, spinach, methie, fruit with skin, dried fruit especially dried apricots, figs and prunes, almonds, etc.

Meals should be well-balanced, containing foods from each food group, i.e. fruits, vegetables, meat/chicken/fish, bread/cereals and dairy products. Fried foods should be limited. They cause indigestion, heart-burn, and weight problems.

AVOID

Fried and fatty foods.

Foods containing too much sugar.

Over-eating especially at sehri.

Too much tea at sehri. Tea makes you pass more urine taking with it valuable mineral salts that your body would need during the day.

Smoking cigarettes. If you cannot give up, cut down gradually starting a few weeks before Ramadhan.

EAT

Complex carbohydrates at sehri so that the food lasts longer.

Haleem is an excellent source of protein and is a slow-burning food.

Dates are excellent source of sugar, fibre, carbohydrates, potassium & magnesium.

Almonds are rich in protein and fibre with less fat.

Bananas are a good source of potassium, magnesium and carbohydrates.

DRINK

As much water or fruit juices as possible between iftar and bedtime so that your body may adjust fluid levels in time.

Problems to Avoid

CONSTIPATION

Constipation can cause piles (haemorroids), fissures (cracks in anal canal) and indigestion, with a bloated feeling. Causes: Too much refined foods, too little water and not enough fibre in the diet.

Remedy: Avoid refined foods, increase water intake, use bran in baking, brown flour when making roti.

INDIGESTION AND WIND

Causes: Over-eating. Excessive fried and fatty foods, spicy foods, and foods that produce wind e.g. eggs, cabbage, lentils, fizzy drinks like Cola also produce gas.

Remedy: Do not over-eat, drink fruit juices or water. Avoid fried foods, add ajmor to wind-producing foods.

LETHARGY ('low blood pressure')

Excessive sweating, weakness, tiredness, lack of energy, dizziness, especially on getting up from sitting, paleness and feeling faint are symptoms associated with "low blood pressure". This tends to occur towards the afternoon.

Causes: Too little fluid intake, decreased salt intake.

Remedy: Keep cool, increase fluid and salt intake.

Caution: Low blood pressure should be confirmed by taking a blood pressure reading when symptoms are present. Persons with high blood pressure may need their medication adjusted during Ramadhan. They should consult their doctor.

HEADACHE

Causes: Caffeine and tobacco-withdrawal, too much exercise, lack of sleep, hunger usually occur during the day and worsen towards the evening. When associated with "low blood pressure", the headache can be quite severe and can also cause nausea before Iftar.

Remedy: Cut down caffeine and tobacco slowly starting a week or two before Ramadhan. Herbal and caffeine-free teas may be substituted. Reorganise your schedule during the Ramadan so as to have adequate sleep.

LOW BLOOD SUGAR

Weakness, dizziness, tiredness, poor concentration, perspiring easily, feeling shaky (tremor), headache, and palpitations are symptoms of low blood sugar.

Causes in non-diabetics: Excessive sugar consumption i.e. refined carbohydrates especially at suhur (sehri). The body produces too much insulin causing the blood glucose to drop.

Remedy: Eat something at sehri, and limit sugar-containing foods and drinks.

Caution: Diabetics may need to adjust their medication in Ramadan, consult your doctor.

MUSCLE CRAMPS

Causes: Inadequate intake of calcium, magnesium and potassium foods.

Remedy: Eat foods rich in these minerals e.g. vegetables, fruit, dairy products, meat and dates.

Caution: Those on high blood pressure medication and with kidney stone problems should consult their doctor.

PEPTIC ULCERS, HEART BURN, AND GASTRITIS

Increased acid levels in an empty stomach aggravate the above conditions. It causes a burning feeling in the stomach area and can extend up to the throat. Spicy foods, coffee, and Cola drinks worsen these conditions.

Medications are available to control acid levels in the stomach. People with proven peptic ulcers and hiatus hernia should consult their doctor well before Ramadhan.

KIDNEY STONES

Kidney stones may occur in people who have less liquids to drink. Therefore, it is essential to drink extra liquids so as to prevent stone formation.

JOINT PAINS

Causes: Extra salah during Ramadhan increases pressure on the knee joints. In the elderly and those with arthritis this may cause pain, stiffness, swelling and discomfort.

Remedy: Lose weight so that the knees do not have to carry any extra load. Exercise the lower limbs before Ramadhan so that they can be prepared for the additional strain. Being physically fit allows greater fulfilment, thus enabling one to be able to perform salah with ease.

Source: Dr. Farouk Haffejee

Islamic Medical Association of South Africa - Durban

By Dr.Farouk Haffejee, edited by Dr. Abu Said

One of the miracles of Islam is the month of Ramadhan, a month in which we can cleanse ourselves, not only spiritually, but physically as well. Ramadhan is a time of worship, but physical ailments can sometimes cause us to lose our spiritual focus. Here is some useful advice on how to avoid common problems that occur during Ramadhan.

'Detox' yourself

If you are in the habit of drinking several cups of tea, coffee or other drinks that contain caffeine, start cutting back one to two weeks before Ramadhan begins. Tea and coffee contain caffeine which is addictive and can cause severe headaches on withdrawal.

If you are a smoker, start cutting down the amount you smoke one to two weeks before Ramadhan. Ramadhan is an ideal month to stop smoking completely.

Ramadhan Diet

During Ramadhan, your diet should not differ very much from your normal diet and should be as simple as possible. The ideal diet should maintain your normal weight, neither decreasing nor increasing it during the month. However, if you are overweight, Ramadhan is an ideal time to lose weight.

To prepare for a long day of fasting, slow-digesting foods and foods with lots of fibre are better than fast-digesting foods. Slow-digesting foods last between 8 and12 hours, while fast-digesting foods last only for 2 to 4 hours.

- Slow-digesting foods contain grains and seeds. Examples are barley, wheat, oats, millet, semolina, beans, lentils, etc.; whole meal flour; whole meal pasta; unpolished rice. They are also known as complex carbohydrates.

- Fibrous foods contain bran, examples are cereals; whole wheat or whole meal flour; grains and seeds, such as beans and lentils; vegetables such as green beans, peas, marrow, spinach, beetroot leaves which are rich in iron, etc.; fruit with skin, dried fruit, especially dates, dried apricots, figs, prunes, etc.; nuts.

- Fast-digesting foods contain refined carbohydrates such as sugar, white flour, white rice, white pasta, etc.

The ideal diet is well-balanced, containing foods from each food group – fruits, vegetables, meat, chicken or fish, bread, cereals and dairy products.

What to Eat

- Eating complex carbohydrates for suhur will help you fast without feeling too hungry. Examples of complex carbohydrates are muesli, bran-rich cereals, whole meal or brown bread, beans, lentils, etc.;

- Soups can be an excellent source of slow-burning food and protein, especially if made from barley and wheat;

- Dates are an excellent source of sugar, fibre, carbohydrates, potassium and magnesium;
- Almonds are rich in protein and fibre and are not fatty. Ground almonds and milk make a healthy drink;

- Bananas are a good source of carbohydrates, potassium and magnesium;

- Eat oven-grilled samosas rather than fried samosas.

What to Drink

Drink as much water or fruit juices as possible between iftar and bedtime so that your body can adjust fluid levels for the next day.

What to Avoid

- Fried and fatty foods should be avoided, they cause indigestion, heartburn, weight problems and blood circulation problems;

- Spicy foods and sauces;

- Foods containing too much sugar and refined carbohydrates;

- Overeating at suhur and iftar;

- Caffeinated drinks like tea, coffee, fizzy drinks, etc.;

- Smoking.

Common Problems

Constipation

Constipation can cause piles (haemorrhoids), fissures (painful cracks in the anal canal) and indigestion with a bloated feeling.

Causes: Eating too many refined carbohydrates, drinking too little water and not eating enough fibre.

Remedy: Eat more fibre and complex carbohydrates, drink more water, use bran for baking, and use brown flour when making bread.

Indigestion and Wind

Causes: Overeating causes indigestion, as does eating too much fried and fatty food, spicy food and food that produces wind, for example, eggs, cabbage, lentils, beans, carbonated drinks.

Remedy: Do not overeat, and drink adequate amounts of water and fruit juices. Avoid fried and fatty foods. Add thymol or celery seeds to lentils and beans.

Lethargy (Low blood pressure)

Symptoms: Weakness, tiredness, lack of energy, dizziness, especially when getting up from a lying or sitting position, a pale appearance and feeling faint. This tends to occur at the end of the day when you need more energy for worship.

Causes: Not drinking enough water, not enough salt in the diet, not eating enough before the fast begins and at iftar.

Remedy: Increase fluid and salt intake. Eat enough to sustain you through the next day. Drink at least one litre of water between iftar and bedtime.

Caution: If you have high blood pressure you may need your medication adjusted for the month of Ramadhan. Diuretics should be avoided.

Headaches

Causes: Caffeine and tobacco withdrawal, doing too much during the day, hunger, stress, lack of sleep etc.

Remedy: Reduce or eliminate caffeine intake one or two weeks before Ramadhan. Herbal teas and decaffeinated coffee can help. Reorganise your schedule so that you have enough time to perform your usual chores and tasks, and make sure you have enough rest.

Low Blood Sugar

Symptoms: Weakness, dizziness, tiredness, poor concentration, trembling, inability to do physical activities, headaches and palpitations.

Causes: Excessive sugary foods, for example, refined carbohydrates especially in the morning before the fast begins (suhur).

Remedy: Reduce the amount of sugary foods and drinks you consume, especially for suhur. Eat more complex carbohydrates. This applies people who are not diabetics. Diabetics will need to adjust their medication during Ramadhan. Please consult your doctor.

Muscle Cramps

Causes: Not enough calcium or magnesium in the diet.

Remedy: Eat foods rich in above minerals, for example fruit and vegetables, dairy products, meat, dried fruit and dates.

Caution: If you are on medication for high-blood pressure or are prone to kidney stones, consult your doctor.

Heartburn, Gastritis, Hiatus Hernia and Peptic Ulcers

Heartburn comes as a burning pain in the stomach area and under the ribs radiating up the chest to the throat. Increased levels of acid in an empty stomach during Ramadhan can aggravate heartburn and ulcers.

Causes: Spicy foods, especially sauces, can cause this, as well as coffee, carbonated drinks, and fatty and fried foods.

Remedy: Avoid all the above foods. Do not overeat. Have a few small meals instead of one big meal, eat a little after iftar and another snack after the tarawih prayer for example.

Medication is available (Gaviscon and PPIs) to control acid levels in the stomach. These should be taken daily for the whole month of Ramadhan.

Kidney Stones

Kidney stones may not be noticed for months or even years after they are formed.

Causes: Some people are prone to produce stones in the kidney. Even if you are not prone, not drinking enough liquids to flush out the kidneys can cause stones to form.

Remedy: Drink lots of water between iftar and bedtime. If you are prone to kidney stones you must also decrease the amount of calcium you eat by avoiding calcium-rich foods such as dairy products.

Joint Pains

Causes: The extra prayers of Ramadhan can often increase the pressure on the knee joints. In the elderly and those suffering from arthritis, this may result in pain, stiffness, swelling and discomfort.

Remedy: Lose weight so that your knees do not have to carry extra load. Exercise your lower body before Ramadhan by walking 30 to 45 minutes three times a week so that your knees will be prepared for the additional strain.

Being physically fit will help you perform your prayers with ease.

Introduction

The period in Islamic Philosophy from the death of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi in 672/1274 to the beginning of what has come to be known as the “School of Isfahan”, which may replaced during the latter part of the tenth/sixteenth century, encompasses some 300 years of intense philosophical activity on many fronts, an understanding of which is essential in order to comprehend the changes, which the speculative sciences underwent in the Safavid era.

Unfortunately, to a certain extent, this period has not received the attention which the earlier and later period have enjoyed in the history of Islamic Philosophy. To some extent this lack of attention may be attributed to the tendency of writers in this period to produce commentaries, supercommentaries, glosses, superglosses and marginalia on the works of their predecessors rather that to write new texts and to the tendency of many modern reseachers to see such writing as a sign of intellectual stagnation. This view needs to be revised, if the richness and importance of these texts is to be understood, for it is in the elaboration od the basic materials of Islamic Philosophy in both commenting texts and the original texts during this period that the ideas which gradually accumulated to produce the later flowering of the intellectual sciences can be found.

With the advent of the Safavid (reigned 907/1501-1145/1732) in Persia in the early tenth/sixteenth century, the nomocentric, dogmatic forces in Islamic intellectual dsisposition immediately found a favourable political climate. The anxiety of legitimacy was particularly acute in the case of the Safavids. The probability that Shaykh Safi al-Din (d. 735/.1335), the founder of the Safavid order, was perhaps a Sunni made the Safavid monarchs, from Shah Isma’il I (ruled 907/1501-930/1524) onward, particularly anxious to demonstrate and institutionalize their Shi’i affiliation.
With the restoration of the Iranian empire and the reign of Shàh ‘Abbàs I (1587-1629), Isfahan became the capital of the Islamic arts and sciences, and the centre of spiritual culture in Iran. The thinkers who began to proliferate in Iran at that time should be grouped under the heading of ‘School of Isfahan’. There were many different orientations within this school. Nevertheles, once Shiism had definitely come out of hiding, vast works began to make their appearance (such as those by Mullà Sadrà, Qàdì Sa’ìd Qummì and others), in which the hadith of the Imams bore fruit in philosophical meditation.

The Iranian biographical-bibliographical catalogues too often make a summary distinction between Peripatetics (mashsha’un) and Platonist (ishraqiyun). First and foremost, the term ‘Peripatetics’ does not have quite the same meaning for our philosophers as it does for us, if only because of the Theology attributed to Aristotle, a work greatly popular among them. On the other hand (for the same reason) it is almost the exception to find a pure Peripatetic among them, a who is not more or less steeped in neo-Platonism and who is not eo ipso, in one way or another, almost an ishraqi.

Major Figures of the “School of Isfahan”

1. Mir Damad

A first and famous example is Mir Damad (Muhammad Baqir Astarabadi, who died in 1040/ 1631-1632), ‘the teacher of thinking’ to several generations of Shiite philosophers, and the greatest name of the School of Isfahan. He is often classed among the mashsha’un; and while this is not innacurate, this ‘Peripatetic’ has left ecstatic confessions of poignant beauty, with clear echoes of al-Suhrawardi, and he chose the pseudonym Ishraq. The college where he taught, the Madrasa Sadr, with its big gardens, still function in Isfahan.

Mir Damad left around forty works on both Arabic and Persian, noted for their abstruseness and almost entirely unedited, as though somewhat eclipsed by those of his briliant pupil Mulla Sadra. His books are: Book of the Burning Coals (Qabasat), a summa of his researches on Avicenna, written in Arabic; Book of the Burning Brands (jadhawat, written in Persian; these fanciful titles have no bearing whatever on the seriousness of the text), perhaps he gives freer rein to his personal vision. On of the problem that preoccupied him was that of finding a solution to the dillema of cosmology: a world ab aeterno, or a world which come into existence in time (as the mutakallimun professed) before there was any time? Between the eternally existing and the event which came into existence in time, he sought a solution in an eternal coming-to-be (huduth dahri), an eternally new event—a concept laden with implications for the events of hierohistory, and which entailed the further concept of an ‘imaginary time’ which was to inspire heated polemics.

Among Mir Damad’s many pupils, mention can only be made here of a few of the most famous. First among these is Sayyid Ahmad ibn Zaynal-‘Abidin al-‘Alawi (died between 1054/1644 and 1060/1650), a young cousin of his who became his pupil and then his son-in-law. His writings on philosophy are important and comprise about ten works. Besides the commentaries on his teacher’s difficult treatises, there is a vast opus on Avicenna’s Shifa’ entitled The Key to the Shifa’, in which the author makes express reference to Avicenna’s ‘Oriental philosophy’; a long introduction to a philosophical and theosophical tafsir of the Quran (Lata’if-i ghaybi’ in Persia), and others.
Another pupil wrote a monumental commentary of one thousand two hundred folio pages on The Book of the Burning Coals (Qabasat), an entire life’s work, Muhammad ibn ‘Ali-Rida ibn al-Aqajani (completed his work in 1071/1661). Another pupil of Mir Damad, Qutb al-Din Muhammad Ashkivari (also known as Sharif-i Lahiji, who died after 1075/1664-1665) wrote a vast raphsody in Arabic and Persian, which divides the traditions, quotations and commentaries concerning the ancient sages prior to Islam, the philosophers and spiritual adepts of Sunni Islam, and finally the Imams and the great figures among the Shiites thinkers and adepts, into three great cycles. The chapter on Zoroaster contains a remarkable comparison of the Twelve Imam of the Shiite with the Saoshyant or eschatological Saviour of the Zoroastrians. He also wrote a treatise on the mundus imaginalis and a commentary on the Quran which employs a Shiite symbolic hermeneutic (ta’wil).

Lastly, Mulla Shamsa Gilani, whose work, amounting to about fifteen treatises hitherto confined to libraries, seem to us of increasing importance as its reconstruction proceeds. He was an Iranian who came from the shores of the Caspian Sea, and for many years he followed the teaching of Mir Damad, whose doctrines he expanded in his books. He was a great traveller (he had travelled aover almost all of Iran, as well as in Iraq, Syaria and Hijaz). He was a younger co-disciple of Mulla Sadra, but unlike him he remained faithful to the metaphysics of essence. Although they criticized each other in their respective books, they conducted a friendly correspondence with each other. Worth mentioning here are his Treatise on the Ways of Certitude, his Treatise on the Manifestation of Perfection to the Companions of Truth, and his Treatise on the Coming-to-be of the World, in which he supports the thesis of Mir Damad that summarized above.

2. Shaykh Baha’ al-Din ‘Amili

The most colourful figure of the Safavid period was Baha’ al-Din ‘Amili, better known as Shaykh Baha’i. His father was the leader of the Shi’ah community of ‘Amil and a student of Shahid-i Thani. Baha’ al-Din, who was born in Baalbek in 953/1546, was then only thirteen years old and well qualified to master the Persian language.. in Persia he continued his studies in the religious sciences, poetry, and hikmat and soon became the leading scholar of his day and the Shaykh al-Islam of Isfahan. Despite his nearness to the court and necessary participation in worldly life he was a gnostic and spent many of the last years of his life travelling with the dervishes and visiting various Sufi masters. He finally passed away in 1030/1622 while returning from the hajj.

Shaykh Baha’ al-Din was the leading theologian and jurist of his time and the leader of the ‘ulama’ of Isfahan. Some of his important works include Jami’-I ‘abbasi on jurisprudence in Persian; Fawa’id al-samadiyyah on Arabic grammar which is still in wide use; atreatise on algebra, the Khulasah fi’l hisab; several treatises on astronomy including the Tashrih al-aflak; a treatise on the astrolabe, ‘Urwat al-wuthqa; general Quranic commentaries; many works on various aspects of the Shari’ah; the Kashkul, a collection of Arabic and Persian writings which ranks among the most famous Sufi works; a series of mathnawis such as Bread and Sweet, Cat and Mouse, Milk and Sugar, and the Tuti-Namah.

3. Mir Abu’l-Qasim Findiriski

The third of the famous triumvirate of sageas from Isfahan, Mir Findiriski, spent much of his life travelling outside Persia, especially in India where he was highly respected by most of the princes and where he made acquaintance of many Hindu sages. He became well acquainted with Hinduism and even wrote a commentary upon the Persian translation of the Yoga Vasistha by Nizam al-Din Panipati, which is one of the major works on Hinduism in Persian. In the Muslim sciences he was a master in philosophy (hikmat), mathematics and medicine, and taught the Shifa’ and the Qanun of Ibn Sina in Isfahan where he dies in 1050/1640.

Mir Findiriski composed several important treatises including one on motion (al-harakah), another on the arts and sciences in society (sana’iyyah) the book on Yoga already mentioned, Usul al-fusul on Hindu wisdom, and a history of the Safavids. The most famous of his poems is a qasidah, based upon that of Nasir ibn Khusraw Dihlawi, which is one of the best known poems on hikmat in Persian.
Mir Findiriski occupied himself not only with methaphysics and the theoretical sciences but also with the sciences of society, of traditional society in which the social structure itself has a directly based on methaphysical principles.

4. Mulla Muhsin Fayd Kashani

Muhammad ibn Shah Murtada ibn Shah Mahmud, better known as Mulla Muhsin or Fayd Kashani, is after Mulla Sadra the most famous of the sages of the generation following that of Mir Damad, Shaykh Baha’i and Mir Findiriski. Born in Kashan in 1007/1600, he spent some years at Qum and then came to Shiraz to complete his studies with Mulla Sadrawhose daughter he later married. Mulla Muhsin’s writings display a harmonious integration of reason, revelation, and gnosis with lesser emphasis upon reason. He succeeded in the Shi’ah world to bring about a complete harmony between Law and spiritual life, Shari’ah and Tariqah.

5. Mulla Muhammad Baqir Majlisi

Muhammad Taqi (1003/1594-1070/1659), known as the first Majlisi, was one of the students of Shaykh Baha’i and an outstanding theologian and Sufi of his time. His son, Muhammad Baqir (1037/1628-1110/1699), the second Majlisi, however, surpassed his father in fame and power and became the most dominant figure of Shi’ism. Having studied with his own father, Mulla Khalil Qazwini, and Mulla Muhsin Fayd, he in turn became the master of over a thousand disciples including Sayyid Ni’matallah Jaza’iri, wellknown for his many writings, especially the account of his own life as a student,
The second Majlisi is especially famous for revivifying the various branches of the Shi’ite sciences and for assembling the writings of the earlier doctors of Shi’ism and prophetic hadiths into encyclopedias which have become the main reference for all who undertake religious education in the Shi’ah madrasahs.

Conclusion

This form of wisdom or hikmat, some features of which we have sought to outline here, did not die with the termination of the Safavid dynasty. Likewise, the school of hikmat continued through the students of Mulla Sadra and others from generation to another and it produced indirectly such figures as Shaykh Ahmad Ahsa’i, the founder of the Shaykhi movement, who was opposed to Mulla Sadra but also Hajji Mulla Hadi Sabziwari, and several other outstanding figures in the Qajar period, the light of whose teachings has not yet disappeared from the horizon of Persia. One can hardly understand the intellectual life of Islam in its totality without taking into account this last major periodof Muslim philosophycal activity, lasting from the Sfavid period to the present.

E. Sri Mulyati

(Master Student of Islamic Philosophy- ICAS Jakarta)